Kant

Kant divided philosophy into empiricism and rationalism. He put forward three critical theories, namely: pure rational criticism, practical rational criticism and judgment criticism. Besides these, Kant first put forward the concepts of the United Nations and natural metaphysics. For the first time, he divided human cognitive ability, cognitive range and boundary, and combed out the fields of consciousness and natural science from chaotic cognition.

On the general question of philosophy, he accurately analyzed how the innate comprehensive judgment became possible. How can pure mathematics become possible? Transcendental perception theory is derived from this. How can pure natural science become possible? The transcendental analysis theory is derived from this. How does metaphysics become possible as a natural tendency? From this, a dialectical theory is deduced. How does metaphysics become possible as a science? Methodology is derived from this.

In perceptual knowledge, Kant put forward: the relationship between phenomena and things themselves; The formal relationship between time and space and transcendental intuition; There are also propositions such as how the object conforms to the concept and man-made natural legislation; There are also formal transcendental idealism and empirical realism.

In the aspect of intellectual understanding, Kant put forward some propositions, such as the category of human knowledge, transcendental deduction of formal category, transcendental self-consciousness, etc.

On the understanding of human rationality, Kant proposed that if people want to know the world, they should start with theoretical rationality and practical rationality, and reveal the pure rationality in the process of human cognition and the relationship among soul, universe and God.

Kant deeply analyzed, excavated and criticized human rational psychology, rational cosmic framework and rational theology, and finally formed his own set of moral theology and moral metaphysics, and constructed anthropology from human moral laws. In his criticism of practical reason, he revealed and expounded the essence of moral metaphysics and man's free will ability. In Critique of Pure Reason, he reveals the application of human general practical reason and theoretical reason in reality.

Kant believes that moral law is an absolute command and the highest goodness and happiness. Only by virtue of moral law can human beings continue to survive and develop. Inferred from the laws of nature, man is the purpose, the freedom and self-discipline of will. Kant's philosophy thinks that freedom can be divided into negative freedom and positive freedom, and freedom has certain limits, which makes a category table for freedom, that is, freedom cannot surpass the starry sky above us and the inner morality (China people understand conscience or conscience).

In Critique of Judgment, Kant put forward and analyzed people's emotional ability, and then obtained people's aesthetic judgment. It is believed that beauty is sublime, and this sublimity is the infinite creation of art. In the judgment of purpose, Kant believes that everything exists with a purpose, and the existence of organisms is an outstanding arrangement of nature. Man's aim is to perfect himself, freedom and virtue.

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Fichte

Fichte disagrees with Kant's exposition on the existence of things themselves, and this system that separates appearances from things themselves will inevitably lead to skepticism. A rigorous philosophical system, like Descartes, should be derived from the most clear and self-evident first principle, according to its inherent inevitability and strict logic. After Hume's question, there is a logically insurmountable gap in the transition from things to rationality, so he agrees with Kant that only idealism is possible. But we should abandon the concept of things themselves and replace it with the concept of absolute self.

Fichte thinks that people's self-consciousness is free will, and he very much recognizes Descartes' "I think, therefore I am". He put forward the basic principle of knowledge science, and thought that the last thing that existed was an absolute self. This absolute self is neither an empirical self nor a transcendental self, but a transcendental element in all self-consciousness. This self-awareness provides the transcendental basis of all knowledge, the foundation and transcendental source of all knowledge and experience, and the highest foundation and starting point in epistemology and epistemology. Here, he combines theoretical rationality with practical rationality, giving himself a high status and the possibility of creative action. Schopenhauer, his student, commented that he bravely attributed the problem of cognition to reason and intuition and completely canceled the object itself, which was a wonderful inspiration.

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Schelling

Schelling's philosophy holds that absolute rationality comes from the generation of self-consciousness. Without self-awareness, the so-called rationality and experience would not exist. Natural philosophy grows in absolute reason, and everything shows two sides and two polarities.

In people's self-consciousness, there is a flame of transcendental philosophy, and there is inevitability in contingency and contingency in inevitability. Finally, in the process of self-improvement, it is inevitable for people to enter freedom. In intellectual intuition and artistic intuition, our humanity has been warmed and sublimated.

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Hegel

Hegel believes that the origin of all things is an absolute spirit, which is free, self-acting and self-improving. Our so-called entity is the subject, and human history follows the dialectical road, but history is always strikingly similar, and many things that have happened before will still happen now and in the future.

Hegel established a systematic ontology through logic, holding that existence is an objective reality, everything that exists is reasonable, and existence is from scratch, from quantitative change to qualitative change, thus realizing its practical significance.

Hegel's essentialism holds that man is a kind of self-differentiation, and everyone will not be exactly the same. Man and society advance alternately in the contradiction of unity of opposites. Sometimes against yourself, and sometimes compromise with yourself.

In the Theory of Concepts, he discussed philosophical propositions such as phenomenon and existence, the inevitability of reality, the relationship between inevitability and freedom, and contingency in absolute inevitability. It is believed that human subjectivity has universality and particularity, generality and individuality. There are mechanical, chemical and purposeful elements in objectivity.

Hegel believes that life lies in cognition, and the absolute concept is acquired in the process of cognition. Truth is the consistency of objective concept and cognitive concept, and truth keeps advancing in self-sublation of old and new.

In natural philosophy, he put forward mechanism, materialism and organicism. In Philosophy of Spirit, he put forward the concept of subjective spirit, which provided a philosophical theoretical basis for anthropology, phenomenology of spirit, modern psychology and master-slave dialectics.

In terms of objective spirit, he expanded the definition of core elements such as morality, family, market, society and country from the objective spirit. Hegel believes that the state is an absolute spirit and an absolute will, and no one can violate it. Existence is reasonable, and rationality is existence. Absolute spirit is the spirit of the times.

He divided philosophy into artistic philosophy and religious philosophy. Among them, the former is divided into: symbolic, classical and romantic. Religion is from nature to spiritual individual, to absolute spirit and finally to religion. Religion is divided into theological religion, positivist religion and liberal religion.

In 200 years, Hegel completely opened up philosophy, history and logic, and completely declared the end of history.

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Nietzsche

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Schopenhauer

seven

David Strauss

D.f.strauss, a German historian and the most controversial Protestant theologian, was the first person to clearly distinguish between the historical figure Jesus and the theme of Jesus.

David Strauss and Bruno Powell are both students of Hegel and the most representative figures in young hegelians. Their criticism of religion had a great and far-reaching influence in Germany and even Europe at that time. Strauss was called "Satan of Christian faith" by theologians at that time, and Powell was called "robespierre of theology" by Lugar.

Hegel regards God as the highest and final expression of reason, thus ending the criticism of faith by reason in the field of pure reason. As important representatives of young hegelians, Strauss and Powell applied Hegel's rational principle to the criticism of realistic religion from both subjective and objective aspects, and realized the connection and transition between the principle of abstract rational criticism and realistic Christianity, the criticism of Christian dogma and doctrine and the criticism of Christian philosophy, and the connection and transition between abstract man and realistic man, which not only laid the foundation of Feuerbach's humanistic religious criticism, but also constituted the theoretical starting point of Marx's early religious criticism.

His greatest philosophical contribution lies in establishing the substantive spirit of religion.

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Feuerbach

Feuerbach believes that the essence of religion is the alienation of human beings, thus establishing perceptual anthropology. When people are alive, there will be confrontation between the soul and the body, between the self and him and me. Desire is the first motive force for human progress, and I want to be there.

Feuerbach studied theology in Heidelberg, Hesse in his early years. Influenced by professors at that time, he became interested in Hegel's philosophy. Despite his father's objection, he went to Berlin to study philosophy with Hegel, and later became a member of young hegelians. Feuerbach does not admit that he is an atheist, but it is only verbal. His so-called theism is actually atheism in the usual sense. He called it humanitarian theology, taking people as gods, trying to restore the so-called divinity by using subjective feelings.