I. Introduction
Introduction (introduction, introduction, introduction, preface) is the introduction of the text, which is equivalent to the opening remarks in the speech. The introduction of domestic publications does not need a separate title. The introduction should outline the text and guide the reading interest. Before writing the introduction, we must first clarify several basic questions: What do you want to explain through this article? Is it worth explaining? What magazine will this article be published in or who is the reader of this article? We should pay attention to these problems when writing the introduction and even the whole paper.
The introduction should include: Why do you want to do this research? What is the theoretical or practical basis for setting the topic? What is the proposed innovation? What is the theoretical and/or practical significance? Telling readers why you want to do this research is the main content and purpose of the introduction, and it also includes explaining the theoretical and/or practical significance of this research.
The statement should be concise and straightforward, such as "severe secondary ventricular hemorrhage has serious clinical manifestations, poor prognosis and high mortality." This paper mainly introduces the treatment of severe secondary ventricular hemorrhage by alternate drainage of bilateral lateral ventricle puncture, urokinase dissolving blood clot washing and lumbar puncture cerebrospinal fluid replacement. Sometimes our research projects have never been carried out by others, and innovation is obvious at this time. For example, "the clinical and CT manifestations of patients with encephalopathy caused by levamisole have been reported in China, but there is no research on magnetic resonance imaging." In most cases, the projects we studied were completed by predecessors. At this time, it is very important to explain the essential differences and innovations between your research and others' research. For example, "there have been several studies on the application of aspirin in ischemic stroke, but these studies are small-scale and non-double-blind. This study adopts a double-blind control method with a large sample and a long observation time. " In the introduction, it is necessary to make a brief review of the research related to this paper. Before the study begins, we should make a systematic review of the contents related to this study, and the results of the review can be briefly summarized in the introduction.
When writing the introduction, we should pay attention to the following matters: ① The content should be unambiguous and the length should not be too long. Review the history, select the main points, and the background dynamics can be summarized in a few words, and it is not appropriate to quote too many references. According to past experience, the number of words in the introduction of a 3000-5000-word paper is 150-250. There is no need to emphasize past work achievements. Reviewing the author's previous work is only to explain the basis and motivation of this writing, not to write a summary. The evaluation of the value of the paper should be appropriate and realistic, and the expressions such as "initiative", "first discovery", "reaching the international first-class level" and "filling the domestic gap" should be used carefully. Because the initiative must have exact information. This can be expressed in a euphemistic way, such as "as far as the literature is concerned, there is no report" (3) Don't repeat textbooks or well-known content. For example, an article discussing whether vitamin D can prevent osteoporosis does not need to explain what vitamin D is and what osteoporosis is. The introduction only plays a guiding role and can explain the design of the study, but it should not involve the data, results and conclusions of this study, and should be less repetitive with the abstract and text. The result is obtained through experiment or clinical observation, and the conclusion is based on the result of logical reasoning to improve opinions. It is illogical to affirm or deny the conclusion in the introduction. ⑤ Introduction generally does not include a separate serial number and title.
Second, materials and methods
Materials and methods mainly explain the research materials, methods and basic processes, and answer the question of "how to do it", which plays a connecting role. Material is the material basis for expressing the research theme, and method refers to the means to complete the research theme. Materials and methods are the basis of scientific papers and the main basis for judging the scientificity and advancement of papers. It can make readers understand the reliability of research and provide information for others to repeat research.
The titles of data and methods are slightly different due to different types of research. Investigation and research are often changed to "objects and methods", while clinical trials use "cases and methods". The materials and methods of different types of research are not exactly the same. Experimental research should explain the experimental conditions and methods. ① Experimental conditions include source, strain, sex, age, weight, health status, selection criteria, grouping method, anesthesia and surgical methods, specimen preparation process, experimental environment and feeding conditions. (2) The experimental methods include the instruments and equipment, specifications, reagents and operation methods. (3) If the reagent is a conventional reagent, the name, manufacturer, specification and batch number may be indicated; If it is a new reagent, the molecular formula and structural formula should also be written; If preparation is needed, the formula and preparation method should be explained. (4) If the operation method is used by predecessors and widely known, just name it; If it is a relatively new method, it is necessary to explain the source and provide reference; If the method is improved, the basis and content of the modification shall be explained; For innovative methods, we should be careful not to mix the introduction of new methods with the new problems studied by this method in one paper. If the paper reports a new method, it is necessary to introduce the specific steps of reagent configuration and operation in detail so that others can learn and popularize it.
The object of clinical research is the patient, and it is necessary to explain whether it is from the inpatient or outpatient department. At the same time, we must briefly explain the number of cases, gender, age, occupation, etiology, course of disease, pathological diagnosis basis, grouping standards, diagnosis and classification standards of diseases, judgment basis of illness and curative effect, observation methods and indicators. The above contents can be selected and explained according to the specific situation of learning, highlighting the key points. (1) For papers studying new diagnostic methods, we should pay attention to whether the research objects include various patients (severity of illness, presence or absence of complications, diagnosis and treatment process, etc.). ), the source of subjects and controls (for example, the prevalence and treatment rate of a certain disease may be different in different levels of hospitals), how to specify normal values, how to diagnose methods, and so on. (2) The research papers on the clinical course and prognosis of the disease should pay attention to the course of the patient's treatment, the referral of the patient, and whether objective standards for observing the disease results have been formulated. ③ Etiology research papers should explain research design methods (such as clinical randomized trials and cohort studies). ) and whether dose effect observation should be carried out. (4) Clinical observation and research, mainly explaining the case selection criteria and general information of cases (such as age, gender, severity of illness, etc.). ), grouping principle and sample distribution method (matching, compatibility or completely random), curative effect observation index and curative effect standard. ⑤ If the treatment method is surgery, the name, mode and anesthesia method of surgery should be indicated; In the case of drug treatment, it should also indicate the name of the drug (generally using scientific name instead of trade name), source (including batch number), dosage, route and method of administration, course of treatment, origin and preparation method of Chinese herbal medicine.
In the materials and methods, it should also briefly explain what statistical processing methods and significance standards are used under what conditions, and if necessary, explain the calculation means and software name.
Third, the result
The research results can be obtained by reviewing the data or materials obtained from experiments or clinical observations, eliminating the false and retaining the true, and then analyzing, summarizing and statistically processing the original data. Results are the core part of scientific research papers, and the success or failure of scientific research is judged according to the results, and conclusions and inferences are also drawn from the results. The achievement part can best reflect the academic level and theoretical and practical value of the paper. So this part of the writing should pay special attention. Results The writing of this part should be clear and reliable, with accurate data, concise text description and correct and reasonable chart design.
The specific content of the results depends on the main body of the article. The results include recording the objective facts of experiments or clinical observations, measured data, deducing formulas, typical cases, obtaining images and so on. , but different types of articles should have different emphasis. (1) For papers studying new diagnostic methods, special attention should be paid to whether the test results are compared with the recognized gold standard by independent "blind method", what is the consistency, and what are the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value respectively. (2) The paper studying the clinical course of the disease should specify whether all cases have been followed up, how high the follow-up rate is (generally more than 80%), whether the external factors affecting the prognosis have been adjusted, and what the results are. ③ The articles on etiological research should pay special attention to the difference of results between exposed group and non-exposed group, whether there are results after exposure, and so on.
The experimental observation records without statistical processing are called raw data. The purpose of statistical processing is to make the original data difficult to understand easy to understand and reveal some inevitable laws from the contingency of the original data. Therefore, the expression of experimental results generally uses statistical data to replace the original data, and it is not necessary to output all the original data. Relative numbers can be used for statistical data, such as percentage, but when the number of samples is less than 100, brackets should be placed after the percentage, and the number of reactions/samples should be indicated in brackets, such as 54.4 1% (37/68). If the measurement data conforms to the normal distribution, the average value+standard deviation (or standard deviation) shall apply; If it is skewed, it is generally expressed by median and full range. If comparing before and after or between groups, the values of statistical test (such as t, u, f, etc. ) and p value. The specific operation of statistical processing can be found in the statistical monograph, and will not be explained in detail here. Statistical terms and symbols shall conform to the provisions of People's Republic of China (PRC) and national standard B3358-82 on "Statistical terms and symbols".
The expression of results is usually accomplished by the combination of words, figures and tables. The following situations can be mainly expressed in words or only in words: ① There are few data in the results, and there are not many observation items that can be compared with the same kind. ② Papers that focus on observing morphological characteristics generally do not use tables, but are mainly described in words, accompanied by morphological pictures. What can be expressed in words need not be listed or drawn. There is no need to elaborate on what has been illustrated by the chart, just emphasize or summarize the key points. The main purpose of written expression is to state the results obtained in this paper, and it is not necessary to emphasize the process, repeat the materials explained by "Materials and Methods", and upgrade the results to theoretical conclusions, so the literature is generally not cited.
The basic requirements of table and chart design are correct, reasonable, concise and clear. "Self-explanatory power" is an important symbol to measure a chart. The so-called "self-evident" means that the content and results of the research can be roughly understood only through tables and charts.
Table is a concise and standardized scientific term. Generally, it is recommended to use a three-wire watch, that is, the watch consists of three horizontal lines: the top line, the target line and the bottom line, with openings on both sides. The column header is between the top row and the title, and the table body is between the title and the bottom row. There is no diagonal line in the upper left corner of the column header, but one or more horizontal lines are allowed in the column header. The header of the summary table indicates the group, and the header of the column indicates the reaction index. But this division is not fixed, and the author can arrange it flexibly according to the situation. Footnotes can also be added below the table.
Graphics is an intuitive way of expression, which can directly express the results of research. Usually, we use the height of column chart to represent the size of discontinuous data, line chart, histogram or scatter chart to represent the change of continuous or measured data, and point chart to represent the relationship between two variables. The title of the chart should be at the bottom of the chart, and comments can be placed near columns or rows.
For data that can be used in charts and tables, you can choose the expression form according to the specific situation. Generally speaking, the data mainly representing the changing trend, especially the continuous dynamic data, should be in the form of charts; The data that need to express accurate statistics should be in the form of tables.
The writing of achievements must adopt a scientific attitude of seeking truth from facts and abide by the principles of comprehensiveness and authenticity. The experimental results, whether successful or not, are valuable as long as they are true. Do not add, delete or tamper with the experimental data at will to meet the "normal" results. This is not conducive to our comprehensive understanding of things and finding new problems.
Papers on clinical efficacy are often accompanied by typical cases after describing the general results, which can be extrapolated. At present, it is considered that it is necessary to attach typical cases to the curative effect study of some newly discovered diseases (such as AIDS) or rare diseases. But for common diseases and frequently-occurring diseases, it is unnecessary to cite typical cases. But it is also a common and frequently-occurring disease. If new therapies and technologies are introduced, typical cases should be attached. Typical cases should be representative, for example, a drug is effective in treating a certain disease, and it is best to choose cases that are effective only with this drug, rather than cases that are combined with other drugs that may also be effective.
Four. discuss
Discussion is the essence of the paper, the answer to the questions raised in the introduction, and the sublimation of the perceptual knowledge of the research results into the essential rational knowledge. During the discussion, the author expounded the internal relationship and development law of things through thinking, theoretical analysis and scientific inference of the research results, which enriched and improved the understanding of the research results from both depth and breadth. The level of discussion depends on the author's theoretical level, academic accomplishment and depth and breadth of professional knowledge. The contents of the discussion generally include the following aspects: ① A brief overview of the recent research on this topic at home and abroad, as well as the current situation of the conclusions and achievements of this study compared with the international and domestic advanced level. ② According to the research purpose, explain the theoretical and practical significance of this research result. ③ Focus on the innovation of this paper, and from what aspects the results of this study support the innovation. ④ Analyze and explain the limitations, shortcomings and doubts of this study, and explain the contingency and inevitability. ⑤ Explain the unsolved problems in this paper, and put forward the future research direction and problems. Not every paper must contain the above contents, but should focus on the research purpose of the paper and closely follow the theme.
Discussion is the part that can best reflect the level of the paper, and it is also the part with higher difficulty in writing. For the initial writing, we should pay special attention to the following points: ① Discussion is the author's exposition of his own academic views, but it does not represent a free forum and cannot be generalized. The content of the discussion should be based on the research results of the paper, focusing on innovation and conclusion, with clear hierarchy and clear priorities, and don't waste pen and ink on secondary issues to dilute the theme. Consistency with the literature can be put aside, and the focus is on inconsistency; Cite the necessary documents, and don't make a literature review. (2) Seek truth from facts, make proper evaluation, don't jump to conclusions, and avoid excessive extended reasoning. There are still many unsolved problems in medicine, so reasoning should be very cautious, generally starting with "possibility" and so on. ③ Any research has its limitations. For example, domestic research results need to be verified abroad; In vitro tests need to be verified by in vivo tests. Therefore, the discussion should adhere to the dichotomy point of view, carefully analyze the reasons for the inconsistency with other people's research results, have an open-minded attitude of pursuing truth and discussing with other authors, and never adopt a "self-centered" attitude. (4) Not every paper should be discussed, and some short stories need not be written. If the results are closely related to the discussion, they can be written together and collectively referred to as results and analysis.
Verb (short for verb) Thank you.
The successful completion of scientific research is inseparable from the help of others. At the end of the article, I would like to thank the people who helped this research. The objects of thanks include: those who put forward guiding suggestions for research work, paper reviewers, data providers, technical collaborators, statisticians, people who draw charts for this paper, and people who provide convenience such as samples, materials and equipment.
Thank you must be realistic, prevent plagiarism and steal beauty, and don't impose it on others, such as writing the names of experts and professors privately to show your review and raise yourself. Generally speaking, thanks should explain the work content of the thanked person, such as "technical guidance", "collecting information" and "providing information".
References are the sources of some viewpoints, data, materials and methods in the paper, and should be listed one by one at the end of the article so that readers can refer to and find relevant documents. The scientific basis and historical background of the paper are explained, and it is suggested that this paper is an innovation on the basis of predecessors' work, which reflects the respect for other people's research results and the starting point of the paper.
The general principles of recording files are accuracy, completeness, standardization and easy retrieval. The requirements for recording documents are as follows: ① The author must have personally read the full-text document. If you only read the abstract, it should not be listed as a reference. ② The number of references should be moderate. The more references, the better, and should be selected. Generally speaking, the basis of the subject, the main experimental methods, the materials that support this paper, and the materials that do not support this paper should be listed as reference. The number of references varies from magazine to magazine. The number of references in general papers is about 10, and the number of reviews is about 20. ③ Try to quote the latest references, because the new ones must include the old ones, preferably within 1 ~ 2 years, and the old ones are seldom used. The content of the textbook should not be listed as a reference, because its content is well known. (4) References cited should be based on published original works, and unpublished papers and materials, translations, reprints and internal materials cannot be cited as references. Unpublished, but notified by the publication, can be cited, but in English, the title of the publication is marked "to be published". The contents published in Foreign Medicine are all processed second-hand materials, and generally cannot be cited as references. Similarly, a review article is not suitable as a reference, but it can also be listed as a reference if it introduces the latest ideas that have not been published in other magazines. ⑤ The cited classic works of traditional Chinese medicine are not included in the references, but the source is indicated at the end of the paragraphs cited in the article.
At present, there are two standards about the writing format of references. One is Vancouver style, which is commonly used in the world, and the other is national standard GB77 14-87, which stipulates the description rules of references after the text. However, different magazines may have different requirements for the format of references. When attaching references, you can refer to the above two standards and the requirements of various magazines.
Both international standards and national standards adopt sequential coding system, that is, the descriptions of references are numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals in the order in which they appear in the text, and attached in square brackets at the end of the main quotation. The quotation should be written in the original text, and the serial number should be marked in the upper right corner of the author, such as XXX [4]; If the author's name is not written, the serial number should be after the quotation; If the serial number of the reference is used as a part of the sentence, it is not used as an angle code, such as …… Reference [6]; When citing multiple documents, list the serial number of each document, separated by commas, such as ×× [1, 4,5]; If the serial numbers are consecutive, only the starting serial number and the ending serial number are marked with "~". The serial number of each document in the reference list at the end of the article is blank, 1 character, without brackets or ".".
Domestic standards are generally consistent with international standards (Vancouver style). This paper mainly introduces the most widely used Vancouver style writing requirements at present.
The description format of periodicals is generally: author, title, title, year of publication, volume number (issue number): start and end pages. List all authors with 6 or less names, separated by commas; Only those with more than 6 people are listed in the top 3, followed by "equal" or "equal". (Generally, only the top three authors are listed in China. )
For example: Chen Zhi. Myositis and dermatomyositis are frequent. Journal of Clinical Neurology,1992,5:117-119.
The description format of books and monographs is: author, title, edition, place of publication, publishing house, year of publication, start and end pages.
For example: Wu Enhui. CT diagnosis of head. Second edition. Beijing: People's Health Publishing House, 40- 168.