/kloc-Russian modern literature in the 0/8th century is transitional. On the one hand, the first batch of famous writers appeared in Russian history, such as lomonosov, Jerchavin, Feng Weixin, karamzin and Rajshev, as well as1Griboye Tofu and krylov at the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century. On the other hand, literature has not yet formed national uniqueness and failed to catch up with the level of modern western European literature. Therefore, it accelerates its exploration and strives to establish a literature with national characteristics without imitation. Its development process is to use various weapons of western European literary schools. Once a certain genre is not suitable for Russia's needs, it will be quickly abandoned and searched for new ones until it finds the weapon that is most suitable for the development of Russian literature and grasps, utilizes and develops it. /kloc-Classicism, Enlightenment, Sentimentalism, Romanticism and other schools have appeared in Western Europe for hundreds of years since the 0/7th century, but they were tried by Russia in less than a century.

In the early days of Russian modern literature, Shaferrov (1669~ 1739) and Fiaofang Procopovici (168 1~ 1736) opposed conservatism and publicized enlightened monarchy, from which we can see the social contradictions and trends at that time.

Classicism, which rose on the basis of Peter's reform from 65438 to 2008, is the basic school of Russian literature in the next half century, showing the struggle between the Enlightenment and medieval ideological principles.

Kang Cemil's satirical poems (1708~ 1744) mainly criticized obscurantism and feudal hierarchy in the 1920s and 1930s, and were still widely read in 1950s.

Lomonosov (1711~1765) wrote hymns to praise the enlightened monarch and the benefits of science and culture to mankind. He standardized the literary genre and style, changed syllabic poems into syllabic and stressed poems more suitable for Russian characteristics, and promoted the formation of a unified Russian national culture and the development of poetry.

The poet and playwright Su marov (17 17~ 1777) also had a great influence. His contemporaries thought that his tragedy and lomonosov's ode marked the real beginning of Russian new literature.

The representative writers of classicism are Terje Iacov (1703~ 1768) and Kheraskov (1733~ 1807). In classical literature, satire develops rapidly. From 65438 to 1950s, satirical fables and comedies appeared one after another.

From the 1960s to the early 1970s, satirical magazines prevailed, the most prominent of which was Unmanned Aerial Vehicle edited by Novikov and The Painter (1769 ~ 18 18).

The former mainly exposes landlords who live a parasitic life like drones, while the latter focuses on attacking the foreign worship and flattery of the upper class.

There are Amin (1735~ 1770)' s Hell Post (1769) and Koko (1744~ 1792)' s miscellaneous son (1769).

In the late 1970s, Jerchavin's poems (1743~ 18 16) began to appear. He combined satire with praise, criticism with affirmation (Philizazon, 1782, Dignitary, 1798), and introduced "vulgar" daily life into poetry (Life of Zwanka, 1807), thus breaking through the classicism to some extent.

Although Feng Weixin (about 1744~ 1792) still adheres to the "three unifications" in his excellent comedy Dude (1782), he profoundly exposes the cruelty and parasitism of serf owners and points out that serfdom is the source of all evil in Russia, which is a step towards realism.

/kloc-In the late 8th century, under the catalysis of English, German and French literature, sentimentalism prevailed in Russia. Most of the works at this time reflect the sadness of the nobles after the Pugachev uprising from 1773 to 1775. Its founder karamzin (1766~ 1826) broke the taboo of classicism and introduced the image of a humble person into literature. In Lisa of Bad karma (1792), he wrote a story about a peasant girl who fell in love with an aristocratic youth and was finally abandoned and committed suicide. Based on the inner feelings of the characters, the novel is novel in style and elegant and fluent in language, and it is very popular after publication.

Dmitrieff (1760~ 1837), a sentimental poet, is good at fables and ballads. A trip from Petersburg to Moscow (1790) written by the noble revolutionary Rajshev (1749~ 1802) is the first masterpiece strongly opposing serfdom in Russian literary history. He truly wrote about the hardships and protests of the peasants, and boldly praised the English revolution in the17th century with the poem Ode to Freedom in his book, but the chapter expressing feelings still maintained a sentimental feature. This work didn't have a direct impact on the literature at that time, and it didn't show its effect until1February.

From the end of 18th century to the beginning of19th century, due to the development of capitalism, the agitation of the French Revolution in 1789, and the upsurge of national consciousness caused by the Great Patriotic War in 18 12, the crisis of autocratic serfdom deepened and finally reached 12.

Adapting to the complicated social situation before and after the uprising, various schools and ideological trends in literature coexist, repel each other and penetrate each other. Although sentimentalism appeared, classicism did not completely quit. They formed a "Russian enthusiasts' forum" (1754 ~18418165438+1865438), which was headed by Shishkov.

/kloc-At the beginning of the 0/9th century, some conservative aristocrats were very dissatisfied with the turbulent society, showing pessimistic and reclusive thoughts, which led to negative romanticism. Zhukov base (1783~ 1852), the originator of his poems, originally descended from sentimentalism. Most of his poems are far from reality, pursuing inner freedom and harmony, and promoting mysterious religious concepts, but he developed and deepened karamzin's psychological analysis of characters. There are some similarities in Bachu Skov's later poems (1787~ 1855).

With the development of the aristocratic revolution, there appeared positive romantic poems opposing tyranny and praising freedom, such as To My Favorite (1820), Citizen (1825) and Pushkin (1826) written by The Decemberists poet Ryliyev.

Reiliyev, Layevski (1795~ 1872), Kucher Bekai (1797~ 1846), Malinschi (1797~ 1837). Please pay attention.

At this time, realistic literature has also made progress. Krylov's fables (1768~ 1844) widely show the disadvantages of society and the wisdom of the Russian nation, with lively forms and popular language. Gribaoye Tofu (1795~ 1829)' s comedy "The Pain of Wisdom" (1824) depicts the image of Kaji, an aristocratic intellectual in the 19 era, and reflects party member's revolutionary sentiment in December by fighting against conservative and reactionary forces. Malinschi's novella, Lazhchinikov's historical novel (1792~ 1869) and Krizov's poetry (1809~ 1842) also contain many realistic elements.

Russian romantic literature was born with the victory of the anti-Napoleonic aggression war in 18 12 and the inner-party uprising in 18251February. It is dominated by poetry and full of strong fighting spirit. Zhukovsky (1783~ 1852) played an important role in the formation of Russian romanticism and was regarded as the first lyric poet in Russia. Influenced by sentimentalism, his works are full of mystery, but they revolutionize the form and meter of Russian poetry. The Decemberists poets criticized the czar bureaucrats and propagated revolutionary ideas, which laid the basic theme of Russian romantic literature yearning for democracy and freedom. Pushkin is a milestone in the history of Russian literature. He is not only the most outstanding representative of Russian romantic literature, but also the founder of Russian realistic literature.

Krylov's fable (1768~ 1844) is also an important achievement of Russian literature. His works not only praised the wisdom of the people, but also expressed sympathy for the painful fate of the working people, satirized tyranny and exposed the parasitic life of the nobility. Krylov's fables are full of national style, humor and wit, and are widely used in folk spoken language, which is deeply loved by the people.

Lermontov is another representative figure of romantic literature after Pushkin. In his long narrative poems "The Monk" and "The Devil", he created a heroic image with rebellious character and expressed the people's just desire to resist tyranny. The lyric poem Sail symbolizes the unyielding warrior of a lonely sailboat "praying for the storm" on the rough sea. "Caucasus" is full of feelings of loving home and shows superb skills in describing nature. In the novel Contemporary Heroes, lermontov created the second "superfluous man" image in Russian literature-Bi Qiaolin.

Russian critical realism literature was formed in 1930s in 19, flourished in 1950s and 1960s in 19, reached its peak in 1970s and 1990s in 19, and turned to decline. In the Russian literary world in recent 100 years, there are many talented writers who describe people's sufferings, and works reflecting the darkness of reality are constantly emerging. Their criticism was mainly aimed at feudal serfdom, and later touched on the capitalist system. They have reached a very high level in thought and art. Gorky once compared western literature and said, "No country like Russia has seen the great name Canruo constellation in less than 100 years."

/kloc-at the beginning of the 0/9th century, the factors of Russian capitalism increased significantly, and the feudal serfdom faced a crisis. The criticism of serfdom by advanced people and the struggle around the abolition of serfdom prompted some writers to turn to realism. The struggle against serfdom requires literature to expose the darkness of society, which is the social basis of critical realism, and the development of literature itself also provides conditions for it.

Pushkin's later creation turned from romanticism to realism, which laid the foundation for Russian realistic literary criticism. Lermontov, Nicola Nikolai Gogol, etc. They are all writers whose early works are famous for romanticism, and they also turned to realism in the 1930s of 19. The poet lermontov (1814 ~1841) published the novel "Contemporary Heroes" in 1840, which inherited Pushkin's tradition of "superfluous man" and created another image of "superfluous man" Bi Qiaolin. Bi Qiaolin is an aristocratic youth who is strongly dissatisfied with the upper class, but he can't get rid of aristocratic life, has no ideal, is cynical, and feels depressed and desperate. He always carries out self-psychological analysis, denies everything and despises himself, and can only become a "redundant person" in society. The author satirized him in a sarcastic tone and condemned the aristocratic society from which he came.

Nikolai Nikolai Gogol strengthened the critical tendency of Russian literature. Belinsky, on the other hand, refuted the opposition's attack on Nikolai Nikolai Gogol, thinking that by the late 1940s of 19, a "natural school" represented by Nikolai Nikolai Gogol had been formed, which was characterized by truly describing and criticizing the darkness of society, with the people at the lower levels as the protagonists and reflecting the sufferings of the people. This is the literature that Russian society urgently needs. Belinsky's theory strongly promoted the development of Russian critical realism. Whose crime is Herzen's (18 12~ 1870) novel? "(1847) created another" redundant person "Beritov. In this way, through the creative practice of Pushkin and Nikolai Nikolai Gogol and the theoretical explanation of belinsky, Russian critical realism won a complete victory in the forties of 19, and entered a prosperous period in the fifties and sixties of 19.

The prosperity of Russian literature is manifested in many writers, many famous books and complete varieties. What should we do with novels like Goncharov's Ob Lomov (1859), Turgenev's The Night Before (1860) and Father and Son (1862)? (1860), Crime and Punishment by Dostoevsky (1864), War and Peace by Tolstoy (1869). Short stories, essays, essays, such as Turgenev's Hunter's Notes (1852), Schederin's Stories from Other Provinces (1856), plays such as ostrovsky's Thunderstorm (1860), poems such as Necrasov's long poem "Who can get it in Russia? (1863~ 1877), etc. In theory, Chernyshevski put forward the famous assertion that "beauty is life", and his paper "Aesthetic Relationship between Art and Reality" (1885) made great contributions to materialist aesthetics.

Turgenev's appearance is a symbol of prosperity. After writing the images of "superfluous people" Luo Ting (novel of the same name, 1856) and Lavretski (aristocratic family, 1960), he quickly turned to the creation of "new people" and started this image series. The so-called "newcomers" refer to ordinary intellectuals, that is, "representatives of the educated liberal democratic bourgeoisie. They are not nobles, but officials, ordinary citizens, businessmen and farmers. " Previously, Goncharov's novel of the same name "Aubrey Lomov" almost ended the image of "superfluous person".

Chernyshevski's What Should I Do then provides some images of "new people". At this time, ostrovsky's plays such as Thunderstorm (1823~ 1886) and Necrasov's Who can be happy and free in Russia? In drama and poetry, it broadens the scope of literary expression life respectively. The former put businessmen, actors, teachers, shop assistants and waiters on the stage, while the latter introduced farmers and small intellectuals into literature.