No matter in school or in society, the most familiar is the paper, which generally consists of title, author, abstract, keywords, text, references and appendix. How to write a thoughtful and literary paper? The following is my thesis on the research object and basic characteristics of modern western philosophy, hoping to help you.

In modern western philosophy schools, scientism and humanism coexist. The following are the research objects and basic characteristics of modern western philosophy.

Modern western philosophy mainly refers to various philosophical schools popular in western capitalist countries since the middle of19th century. /kloc-in the middle of the 0/9th century, the capitalist system in western countries was finally established. /kloc-in the late 20th century, western countries began to change from the stage of free competition of capitalism to the stage of monopoly. The first page of the 20th century, with the victory of Russian October Revolution, also marked that human history has entered a brand-new period of socialist revolution. After the Second World War, the western capitalist countries experienced temporary relative prosperity, but it was followed by economic stagnation and social unrest. At the same time, various corresponding social contradictions and spiritual crises began to deepen gradually. Generally speaking, all kinds of contradictions and crises in capitalist society in this period are directly or indirectly reflected in various schools of modern western philosophy.

/kloc-From the late 20th century to the first page of the 20th century, an important means of philosophical research is formal deductive logic, which makes the systematicness and scientificity of mathematical logic more and more important. At the same time, due to the emergence of relativity and quantum mechanics in physics, a revolution in the field of science and technology has completely changed the structure of this basic scientific concept, indicating that human understanding is undergoing tremendous changes in the macro world and the micro world. In the 1960s and 1970s, due to the rise of scientific and technological revolution, the scope of human knowledge was greatly expanded, and there was a trend of integration of modern scientific development and technology. The emergence of new functions of modern natural science is also reflected in different degrees in modern western philosophical schools.

1 On this issue, there are some views on the study of modern western philosophy.

(1) Due to the development of science and technology, western philosophers began to abandon western classical philosophy and gradually moved towards an information society and a scientific society. There are indeed a few people who separate the relationship between science and human beings, and then observe that there are differences between them, which cannot be confused, and they are also divided into two kinds of thoughts and two kinds of tendencies: science and humanities. Later, western thinkers seem to find that it is inevitably biased to study social problems only from a purely scientific standpoint or a purely humanistic standpoint. Therefore, especially in the last 20 years from 1930s to 1940s, the philosophical concepts of western science and humanistic philosophy became more and more popular, and the ideas of "postmodern metaphysics" and "post-philosophy" began to rise, so the rise of western philosophy and social sciences may no longer be a turning point. Therefore, modern western philosophy, scientific life and humanism are not always distinct, but also have an objective process of mutual infiltration and integration.

(2) In the schools of modern western philosophy, scientism and humanism coexist. Various schools of modern western philosophy were differentiated from classical philosophy in the19th century. Although different schools of philosophy have numerous internal factions and frequent changes, due to the characteristics of modern western society and the influence of ancient Greek thought and western classical philosophy, modern western philosophy can be generally divided into traditional scientism and humanism, thus forming two main streams. At the same time, this division is not absolute. Through the confrontation and debate between these two megatrends, the two systems are also infiltrating, transforming and merging with each other. Therefore, this division is only to better grasp the overall development trend of modern western philosophy. Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences conducted a corresponding analysis and investigation on 46 foreign philosophical journals in 14 countries and more than 40,000 papers in 14 countries, and the survey results also confirmed this view to a great extent.

Two Basic Features of Modern Western Philosophy

2. 1 Decline of experience and gradual rise of rational theory

After a long-term debate between empiricism and rationalism, empiricism theory began to fade out and rationalism theory began to appear. From the beginning of 20th century to the end of 1950s, empirical analysis developed by Comte and Russell has always occupied a major position in British and American philosophy. Pragmatism also tends to empiricism to a great extent in continental Europe. During this period, only reasonable neo-scholasticism still has some influence. Great changes have taken place in all aspects in the later period. In 1960s, due to the development of French structuralism movement, it tried to restore the dominant position of rationalists in modern philosophy. Paying attention to experience has caused heavy losses, but it all comes from psychology. With the vigorous development of psychological school, rational empiricism has the best refuting evidence. According to cognitive science, the philosopher's mind is definitely not a whiteboard. Usually the simplest point of view will also have an impact on people's cognitive function. The information storage and retrieval of images from all walks of life has become more complicated, and the pure experience or observation envisioned by empiricists cannot be used. People's understanding of external things, cognitive patterns or paradigms have played a decisive role in the formation of the theory. The experimental results of new physics criticism against empiricism provide the corresponding theoretical basis for the revival of rational theory. The soul of empiricism or rationality is seriously neglected, and the existence of unobservable theory provides convenience for realistic observation. The most scientific realists oppose empiricism, but many realists also put forward different views. In their view, the objects of this theory can be effective, even if they are unobservable. The transformation between empiricism and rationalism in modern western philosophy is the inevitable result of scientific development.

2.2 relativism replaces monism

With the continuous development of logic, ethics, science and other fields, philosophy has become more and more diversified, and relativism has replaced the original monism. Philosophers no longer believe in eternal, universally effective and unique paradigms, but acknowledge the rationality of ethics. Of course, compared with culture, with the changes of the times, the scientific paradigm and even the logical rules are different. Philosophers tend to be pluralistic and use different methods to test their theories: some people think this is tolerable, and these theories reveal human and historical facts. Feyler's bending theory made scientists the inventors of the theory and also determined the standard form. In the cultural history of modern western philosophy and ethical philosophy, the characteristics of relativism are gradually removed, and the advocates of multiculturalism will have different standards at the same time or successively, which are not comparable and become relativists. The popular moral relativism and cultural relativism in modern western philosophy are not dominant. Pluralism opposes fixed standards, but it also opposes relativism.

2.3 Language learning issues of common concern

Analytical philosophers tend to believe in scientific problems. In fact, without language problems, it is difficult for scientific research to achieve reasonable results. Language problem is the explanation of philosophical problem itself, so scientific problem can still be attributed to language problem. These aspects usually focus on the difference between formal language and everyday language, but there are also very different emphases between them. One is to analyze and clarify different languages or conversations, such as lectures on religion, ethics and science and other branches of philosophy. Therefore, philosophy is about heart-to-heart. This kind of philosophical language belongs to the second level and is discussed in metalanguage. Only in artificial language or formal language can we clearly distinguish between object language and metalanguage. Philosophers hold this view that everyday language has many defects. No matter what kind of conversation, we must build a more formal language environment, not those who use the language. Only in this way can we clarify many words appearing in the dialogue, including the logical and semantic relations of sentences.

The linguistic problem is mainly that structuralism, the main analytical philosophy popular in Anglo-Saxon countries, has been explained and popularized in continental Europe. The comparative analysis of these philosophies should pay more attention to analyzing the differences of these philosophies through language, but not just language. All phenomena, including social phenomena, psychological phenomena and even natural phenomena, should be reasonably analyzed and explained as corresponding codes or symbols or as corresponding texts.

An evolutionary paper on expanding the modern view of time in western philosophy

Time is a basic and important concept, so it is very valuable to study the concept of time. This paper mainly analyzes and compares the philosophical discourses of three representative philosophers, Bergson, Heidegger and Derrida, on time and time-related concepts in modern western philosophy, modern philosophy and contemporary philosophy, so as to get a glimpse of the concept of time in modern western philosophy and grasp the development of the concept of time in western philosophy and science as a whole. This paper uses metaphors and charts to illustrate some abstract philosophical views, which is simple and easy to understand, and makes a little contribution to the study of time view.

Keywords time; Stretching; Existence; Pink face

Time is closely related to all existence, but it is difficult to define it accurately. Therefore, the concept of time is a basic and important concept. Since ancient times, many philosophers and thinkers have thought about time. With the continuous development of philosophy, time has gradually become the focus of some philosophers. In modern western philosophy, some philosophical concepts are closely related to time. This paper will sort out, expound, analyze and compare several philosophical views related to time, explore the time views of western philosophy since modern times, reflect on their changes, and temporarily refuse to comment on whether these time views are correct.

First of all, the time view of three famous philosophers.

1, continuity and time-Bergson's view of time Bergson is a representative philosopher of irrational life philosophy in modern western philosophy. An important concept in Bergson's philosophy is continuity. Stretching is real time, real time is continuous, and it is a continuous and uninterrupted quality change, which is neither indivisible nor measurable. The essence of reality is continuity, and the material in front of us is only a "segment" of continuity. Similarly, man's true self is not a metaphysical self-entity, but also a kind of stretching. Because space can be divided, reason can be used in the study of space. However, in order to better grasp the time, we should use intuition. Because rational activities cut off stretching, and intuition can grasp stretching itself as a whole. A flame burns in the air, and its shape changes with time, and every moment is different, similar to stretching. If you take a picture with a camera, you can get a picture of the flame shape in an instant, but if you compare this picture with the burning flame, you will find that the flame shape is different in many details. The flame shape in the photo is produced by cutting off the continuity of the flame shape, and it has lost its nature of continuous burning and surging. Therefore, it is useless to analyze a certain segment on the stretch with reason, just like shooting a flame with a camera. If you want to understand the stretching itself, interception is useless and you can only use intuition. As the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus said, "One cannot step into a river twice at the same time."

2. Existence and time-Heidegger's view of time Husserl's phenomenology advocates "suspending judgment and facing the event itself". The so-called "phenomenon" is a universal * * * phase, which hangs rational thinking and intuitive things themselves. Heidegger believes that the "object itself" reduced by Husserl's phenomenology is only "existence" itself, some of which are truth and some are illusion, which makes the "display" of "existence" more important. This kind of "display" is the "existence" of "existence" itself, or how "existence" exists. Using reason and intuition, we can know and grasp "existence", but we can't experience "existence" itself. "Existence" can only be revealed as a deep perceptual "worry". This is Heidegger's understanding of things themselves after using phenomenological principles to "suspend" the concepts of rationality and intuition in traditional philosophy. It can be said that "you" is still the object of understanding, and "you" is not the object of understanding. It is not even an object, but a presentation, a process and a state. "Boredom" is a kind of deep emotion that comes from "being here" and feels that oneself and other beings are "alive". According to Freud's theory, human psychological activities are divided into three parts: consciousness, pre-consciousness and unconsciousness. Consciousness is only the tip of the iceberg of psychological activities, while unconsciousness is the whole iceberg except the tip of the iceberg. Rationality is the independent activity of consciousness, intuition is more intuitive than rational consciousness, and the more fundamental emotional "worry" is related to unconsciousness. Therefore, "worry" is closer to the real state of human existence than "thinking" and "intuition". Heidegger believes that "existence" is "existence", which leads to "present". Taking "present" as the dividing point, "past and future" will also come into being. These three states of time correspond to three states of being: throwing state (past), sinking state (present) and living state (future). But "this being" always exists in the present, while "the past and the future" only exist in fantasy and imagination, so the three existing states of this being are intertwined in the present, and there is no distinction among them. Heidegger's view of time;

3. Division and Time-Derrida's view of time Derrida, a representative philosopher of western contemporary deconstruction, put forward the concept of "division", which changed the relationship between words and things from the vertical relationship from signifier to signified (proposed by Saussure) to the horizontal relationship from signifier to signified. "Delay" refers to the continuous division and delay of the signifier in the text, which distinguishes one signifier from other signifiers and delays it into a new signifier. Because the text cannot create the signified, it can only create a new signifier to delay the signified, so the delay is infinite and the signified is always absent. It is a timely process that the signifier is constantly delayed. The extension path of the signifier is called "trace", and grasping the "trace" is an epiphany, but this epiphany is not the real "presence" of the reference, but the hazy illusion of "reaching the reference" produced by grasping the "trace of the trace". Just like a person going to a place, the road is very complicated and the end point is infinitely far from the starting point. Therefore, when walking, people should not only know the way to go, but also know how to choose the right way to the end. If the walking time is infinite, then people can reach the finish line. Similarly, grasping the trace of signifier is equivalent to grasping the whole trace (though infinite) and producing a sense of arrival, as if the signified already exists. This is like facing an infinite series. Although you can find its general formula and calculate the value of any bit, it seems that you have mastered this series. No matter which number you calculate or which number is larger (smaller), you can't reach the infinite edge. So there is no end to the trace, and the subject's grasp of the trace of the signifier movement is only an epiphany. From Derrida's point of view, not only the signifier can be extended, but also the difference of signifier can be extended, because the difference of signifier is also a new signifier, so it can be extended. People's epiphany on "time" is formed by the traces of differences between different signifiers, that is, the differences between two (or more) signifiers extend to the differences between the other two (or more) signifiers. The trace of difference formed by this continuous extension and the grasp of the trace of different differences have produced a similar epiphany on "now" (not the ultimate meaning of "now"). However, because the trace is constantly delayed, the trace of difference is also constantly delayed, so the dotted "now" (in the sense of being truly understood) can never be reached, and its "reference" is not entity. Thus, the punctate "present" is deconstructed, which leads to the deconstruction of "past" and "future", and finally leads to the deconstruction of linearized time. Derrida turned the "point" into a "trace" that can't fully grasp its meaning and can only be spread by the signifier in an epiphany way. Because the "timeline" is composed of infinite "time points", the "line" can't be really constructed-it can only be infinitely close and can never really become. Through the above analysis, it is found that Derrida's time is a nonlinear time that cannot be really understood, and can only be grasped through "epiphany". Derrida s view of time;

Second, the comparison of the views of the three philosophers.

1, the essence of life and the essence of existence-Bergson and Heidegger's "difference" (1) intuition and emotion Bergson tends to grasp continuity with intuition, while Heidegger tends to experience existence with profound emotions. Bergson believes that the essence of life is a kind of stretching, and stretching cannot be analyzed, and only intuition can grasp stretching; Heidegger believes that the essence of existence is "this is presence", which produces "now" and "now" produces "time". Reason and intuition can only grasp "existence", and only through deep emotional troubles can we experience "existence", and the essence of existence is time. (2) Characteristics and sources Bergson pays attention to the characteristics of time, while Heidegger pays attention to the sources of time. Bergson put forward that time is continuous, that is, taking time as the object to study the characteristics and characteristics of time, that is, what is the characteristics of time. Focusing on the relationship between existence and time, Heidegger thinks that time is the essence of existence, time comes from existence ("this is"), and time is meaningful relative to "this is" and closely related to "this is". 2. From "the existence of existence" to "the trace of difference" —— The transition from "existence" to "difference" between Heidegger and Derrida (1). Heidegger believes that "time" is produced after "existence" is revealed. Derrida thinks that the difference is more fundamental than existence. With the difference, there is the difference between being and being, and there is the difference between being and being. Therefore, "difference" is a more fundamental concept than "you" and "you". (2) From "presence" to "trace" Heidegger believes that the existence of existence is a state of "presence", and it is precisely because of "presence" that there is "present" and presence is a manifestation. Derrida believes that "presence" is only an illusion, and the so-called "referred presence" is only a "trace" of grasping the extension and diffusion of the referred. "Trace" is the road to secrecy, and the so-called "presence" is the end of the road, but Derrida believes that this road has no end. Therefore, the trace is a kind of concealment.

Thirdly, it briefly introduces the important concept of time in the history of western philosophy.

Briefly describe the philosophers' view of time in history: From the above table, we can find that the development of the view of time in the history of philosophy generally follows the alternate thread of objective interpretation and subjective interpretation. The development of thought is similar to a circle, returning to the starting point, but reaching a higher level: from Aristotle to Bergson is a circle (separation of subjective and objective), from Bergson to Derrida is another circle (integration of subjective and objective), and the second circle is higher than the first one. In addition, the concept of time in the history of science has also undergone major and subversive changes. Time changes from linear absolute to nonlinear relative; From the point of view of uniform flow, it can not only shrink and expand, but also reverse. Comparing the two tables, we can find that the conclusions drawn from philosophical theory and scientific research are basically the same, that is, denying the linear absolute view of time.

Four. conclusion

Philosophy's understanding of time, from the point of view of three famous philosophers in modern times, modern times and contemporary times, is to explain the characteristics of time from the perspective of existence, and finally to understand time from the perspective of traces of differences, so that pure time, as a continuation of life, is cut off by "presence" and is closely related to the three States of existence, becoming the essence of existence, but eventually it is completely deconstructed and becomes the essence of existence because it cannot be present. Heidegger cut off the linear time horizontally, while Derrida deconstructed the time point into the trace of infinite difference vertically, which can only be grasped by epiphany. Now, as a point, it no longer exists and becomes a ray. Thus, the macroscopic linear absolute view of time is deconstructed, leaving a nonlinear, relative and "absent" view of time that reason can't really understand.

refer to

[1] Zhao Dunhua. A brief history of western philosophy [M]. Beijing: Peking University Publishing House, 2000.

[2] Zhao Dunhua. Modern western philosophy [M]. Beijing: Peking University Publishing House, 200 1.

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