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In Qin and Han dynasties, the pottery was mainly argillaceous gray pottery, with a small amount of black pottery and red pottery. Generally, it is made by the method of mud strip disk construction, and the round shape is neat and complete. Some clay materials are very fine, while others are mixed with fine sand. Because of the different iron oxide content and firing atmosphere in clay, the color is also different. There are hard pottery and soft pottery according to texture. Hard daily necessities in Tao Ge and soft pottery are often painted with vermilion, decorated with exquisite ornaments and used as funerary wares.

Chinese name

Qin and Han pottery

raw material

Mainly argillaceous gray pottery

function

Daily necessities and funeral utensils

age

Qin and Han dynasties

manufacturing method

It is made by using the method of making clay strips.

The pottery in Qin dynasty is represented by the pottery in Guanzhong and Qin's hometown, and the typical utensils are cocoon-shaped pots.

Terracotta army

, pots, jars, pots, pots, beans, jars, urns, warehouses, etc. Many utensils have their own characteristics, such as cocoon-shaped pot, also known as duck egg pot, whose abdomen extends horizontally to both sides, shaped like cocoon and duck egg, hence the name; The basin at the bottom of the pit unearthed from the site of Xianyang Palace in Qin Dou has an oval mouth, a slightly protruding abdomen and a thick and hard mouth. When unearthed, it was nested in several sections, with a diameter of 1m and a height of 60cm. The bottom diameter is 50 cm, which may be used for grain storage; This pottery barn is Amin pottery, which was found in the Qin tomb during the Warring States period. The pottery barn unearthed near the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor has a short body, a circular roof simulating a flat-topped slope, and a flat square doorway in the middle of the front of the barn. The pottery in Qin dynasty is delicate in texture, mostly light gray, and the raw materials are well processed. Generally, it is formed by mud slab construction method, and it is also formed by pottery wheel. String ornaments are made during the forming process of pottery wheels.

The pottery of the Han dynasty has a high level of craftsmanship, beautiful shape and excellent texture. Varieties and decorations vary from region to region. Common daily-use pottery in Guanzhong area of Shaanxi Province includes beans, pots, cups, spoons, plates, cans, retort, small pots, flat pots, cocoon-shaped pots, bowls, pots and bells. Ritual vessels include ritual vessels, model ritual vessels, pottery cellars and various animal images. Decorative patterns are mostly deformed palindromes, triangular patterns and dimple patterns. The daily pottery used by people in the east of Tongguan, Shaanxi Province is mainly gray pottery, including cans, pots, bowls, spoons, cups, urns, boxes, washing, retort, cups, plates, statues and so on. Popular household appliances models in Han Dynasty, such as warehouses, stoves, stoves, wells, etc. Most of them are used as funerary objects Boxes, plates, boxes, cups, etc. Gradually appeared in groups and became sacrificial vessels to meet the needs of people's reburial. Pigs, sheep, dogs, chickens and other livestock and poultry, as well as pens, houses and other burial models are also popular. Decorated with string patterns, carved triangular patterns, chain patterns, comb teeth patterns, animal patterns, as well as rope patterns, beat patterns, mold patterns, reliefs, coloring, painting and so on. In Changsha area in the south, the pottery-making technology is self-contained, the pottery box is widely used, the pottery pot has no cover, and the tripod's three feet are in the shape of thick animal hooves. Other practical utensils include pots, jars, bowls, pots, kettles, retort, retort, rectangular stove and Boshan stove. It is characterized by hardness and massiness. Sacrificial funerary objects include stoves, warehouses, wells, houses and pigsty models. Guangdong belonged to Nanhai County in the Qin and Han Dynasties. The commonly used pottery includes urn, two-ear jar, ladle jar, quadruple jar, five-joint jar, small jar, pot, small jar, warm jar, altar, box, sand dune, small box, tripod jar, quadruple box, bowl, basin and pot. Most of the utensils are gray-white printed hard pottery, and some of them are printed, mostly containers. There are only three kinds of cookers: kettle, tripod and retort. Dings, pots and kettles with special shapes have obvious local characteristics. Printed hard pottery pays great attention to decoration. There are more than 70 kinds of geometric patterns alone, in addition to strings, pottery patterns, holes, combs, scratches and so on. Draw more on the funerary wares. Sichuan, Yunnan and other places also have their own pottery industry, and many works are similar to those in the Central Plains, such as round-bottomed pots, neck-tied pots and drum pots. Although the cocoon-shaped pot popular in Guanzhong area is not produced, it is indeed found. Dancing figurines, storytelling figurines, fiddling figurines, listening to songs, standing figurines and all kinds of poultry are lifelike, beautiful and natural.

There are many kinds of pottery in Qin dynasty, most of which are modeled after bronze wares. Hate most

Terracotta army

People pay attention to the Terracotta Warriors, which is known as the miracle of the world. Each body is tall, similar in size to a real horse, lifelike, lifelike. The whole army array is neat and unified, and it is magnificent, which fully shows the magnificent scene of Qin Shihuang's unification of China with "a million blows" and "a thousand times of chariots". Because the terracotta figures are tall, when making them, we should first consider how to make them stand up steadily, so the potters thought of two ways: one is to make the legs into solid cylinders to bear the weight of the body above the legs and make them not easy to collapse; Secondly, a pedal is bonded at the foot of the clay figurine, which can not only increase the weight of the lower part and reduce the center of gravity, but also increase the contact surface between the clay figurine and the ground, greatly improving the stability of the clay figurine. The firing of Qin Terracotta Warriors and Horses is an unprecedented feat in the history of ceramic technology. It not only reflects the culture, art, technology and production level at that time, but also provides extremely valuable information for the study of pottery firing technology and sculpture art in Qin Dynasty.

The discovery of Chinese terracotta warriors and horses in Qin dynasty changed people's view that Etruscan pottery is the largest in the world. The production of Qin figurines far exceeds Etruscan pottery in quantity, scale and artistic style.

Terracotta army

From 65438 to 0974, several terracotta warriors and horses pits were found at the foot of Lishan Mountain in Lintong County, Shaanxi Province, and thousands of pottery figurines were unearthed. These tall Ren Tao and Ma Tao formed a magnificent army array in various postures. Warriors dressed in armor and armed with various weapons are arranged in an orderly manner according to a certain formation. The whole army array is magnificent and uniform, showing the majestic posture of Qin Jun with "Xiongnu in the north, six countries in it, and a million troops", and the soldiers are stronger than Ma Zhuang. Amazingly, the height of each of these terracotta warriors and horses is 1.8 meters, their faces and expressions are different, and each has its own personality characteristics. The grandeur and majesty of the whole army array is expressed through the different personalities of each soldier. Careful observation shows that some details of the terracotta figures, such as hair, nails on armor, belt buckles, and even hemp stitches on the soles of the terracotta figures, are clearly displayed. The pottery horse in the array is similar to a real horse in appearance, with fat and strong body, small ears and big eyes, deep mouth crack, mane cut and tail tied, forelimbs upright, hind limbs like bows, giving people a strong impression of being eager to move and impatient.

All the terracotta warriors and horses are decorated with colorful paintings. Because it has been buried underground for a long time, most of the colors have fallen off, and some of them have survived, including black, red, blue, white and pink. Colorful and harmonious. From the production method, the production of Qin figurines is to make the head, trunk and legs through molding and then stick them together. The upper body of the figurine is hollow, and the craftsman's fingerprints can be faintly seen on the inner wall, and the legs are made into solid cylinders to bear the weight of the whole trunk. In addition, some terracotta figures and horses are also bonded with pedals, which increases the contact surface between terracotta figures and the ground and enhances the stability of terracotta figures.

In a word, Qin Terracotta Warriors and Horses are very lifelike, and the characters are concise and vivid. They described the key details of the characters in detail, meticulously. At the same time, they use techniques such as plastic, kneading, piling, carving and painting to combine the modeling characteristics of characters into artistic images. Bright, deep and majestic, this is not only the characteristic of Qin Terracotta Warriors and Horses, but also the style of China ceramic sculpture. Besides Terracotta Warriors and Horses, several kneeling figures were found near the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor. Their eyebrows are high, their eyes are looking down, their lips are closed, their waists are upright, and their expressions are gentle and slightly fearful. This may be a reflection of Qin's mentality of ruling the people under high pressure.

Han dynasty is an important period for the development of ceramic art, and the number and types of artistic pottery in Han dynasty are more than in the past. Western Han pottery inherited the artistic style of Qin Dynasty, which was profound and majestic. Independent figurines with their own characteristics in the Western Han Dynasty

Painted Double Bird Monster Ceramic Wall Pot Western Han Dynasty

There is also a painted command map unearthed from the Han tomb in Yangjiawan, Xianyang, Shaanxi. This figurine is like wearing a scarf, hanging a red ribbon, wearing a red and white shirt, wearing black armor, wearing a waist and kicking high boots. This figurine highlights the commander's breath with its concise, refined techniques and bright colors, which is very touching. However, the most distinctive independent figurines in the Han Dynasty may be the rap figurines in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The rap figurines unearthed in Chengdu, Sichuan province, have shaped a story teller with a happy face, a naked upper body, a bulging stomach and a bulging chest. The left arm holds the drum, and the right arm holds the stick and points forward; Curl your right foot and stretch your left foot forward. As Yi Fu said in Dance Fu in Han Dynasty: "It is better to observe its shape than to listen to its sound." The pottery figurines in Sichuan in the Eastern Han Dynasty are the most typical, with vivid shapes, simple and refined techniques, rich flavor of life and times, reflecting all aspects of social life at that time, such as politics, economy, culture, military affairs and ethnic relations. Most of the pottery figurines of Han Dynasty in Sichuan are muddy red pottery with low temperature and loose tires.

Han Dynasty is an important turning point in the history of China ceramics. The surface of utensils was widely glazed, and some scholars thought it was influenced by the technology of making colored glasses in Rome and Europe, because people at that time had close trade with the above areas. It became a custom for people in Han Dynasty to attach importance to tombs. Sacrificial objects strive to enrich and elaborate the brief history of Qin and Han Dynasties. They are called "ritual vessels". Unlike ritual vessels, they are specially used for the dead in the underworld, not for the living. Except for a few stone products, metal products and wooden lacquerware, pottery products are widely used in funerary objects, because this material can be preserved for thousands of years without corruption. In addition to eating and drinking utensils, there are a lot of life scenes that are imitated and miniaturized, such as ceramic pavilions, barns, stoves, animal pens, chariots and horses, wells, slaves and so on. Create an unreal environment for the dead to enjoy. Pots, statues, pots, cans and other utensils in funerary wares are generally painted with pastels on the outside of the blank, which do not blend with the carcass and will fall off with a little friction; A small proportion of life scene models are drawn with green low-temperature lead glaze. At that time, lead glaze was known to be toxic, so it was not used in daily necessities. The emphasis on the mausoleum led to the emergence of a special building material "brick" in this period. "Ghost" refers to the grave. Bricks are large in volume, hollow inside and decorated with patterns outside, which can be arranged continuously or painted independently. Brick pattern is ground by mold, which is the embryonic form of ceramic surface printing technology later.

In addition, in the pottery of the Han Dynasty, the artistic achievements of Wa Dang are also outstanding. The ceramic shapes of the Han Dynasty are rich and full, and many of them imitate the shapes of bronzes. The surface of the ware is glazed, and the firing temperature is about 950 degrees to 1000 degrees, which belongs to low temperature glaze, so the surface of the Han ware seen today has fine broken lines. Until the Han Dynasty, the steamed bread kiln used in northern China had basically reached a relatively perfect level. In the south, a relatively mature dragon kiln has appeared at this time, which shortens the firing time while increasing the kiln room.

In the Han Dynasty, clay was used as a green tire and fired in a kiln. Mainly utensils, storage containers and other containers, as well as other daily utensils, funerary wares and so on. Due to the different ages and regions, the types, forms, manufacturing methods, decorative patterns, firing temperatures and so on are different. Generally, it can be divided into four categories: gray pottery, hard pottery, glazed pottery and celadon.

Grey pottery is the most important pottery system in Han dynasty, which is spread all over the country. The capacity of grey pottery in Han dynasty

Eastern Han painted pottery

On the basis of inheriting the tradition from Shang and Zhou dynasties, the device has been further developed and reached a higher level in production technology. Generally, it is blue-gray, with uniform heat, and the firing temperature is about 1000 degrees Celsius, with a solid texture. For all round containers, blank tires are made of wheels with regular shapes and smooth surfaces. Except for a few parallel strings, some local geometric scratches and the marks carved with the rotation of the pottery wheel, it is basically unremarkable. In the early Western Han Dynasty, a few containers, such as cans and cans, occasionally had some unclear rope patterns; After the mid-Western Han Dynasty, the rope pattern basically disappeared. Some gray pottery is painted with colorful patterns, which are called "painted pottery". Painted pottery is colored only after firing, and it is easy to fall off. This kind of "painted pottery" is only found in tombs, but not in residential sites. It can be seen that it is specially made for tombs. There are some gray pottery painted on the surface, imitating the lacquerware at that time. Taodou, which was popular in the Warring States Period, was occasionally seen in the early Western Han Dynasty, but it soon disappeared. Pottery figurines appeared in the late Warring States period, prevailed in the Western Han Dynasty and disappeared in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The peculiar "duck-egg-shaped pot" appeared at the end of the Warring States Period, was popular in the Qin Dynasty and the early Western Han Dynasty, and was extremely rare after the middle of the Western Han Dynasty. Ding Tao and Zhong Tao are the most common imitation bronze pottery in Han Dynasty, and they have been popular for a long time. Other containers, such as jars, pots, pots, plates, bowls, etc., existed in large numbers throughout the Han Dynasty, and their forms evolved over time. In the early Western Han Dynasty, a few jars with rope patterns still had flat bottoms. Since the mid-Western Han Dynasty, almost all the utensils except the tripod and the foot winder have been flat-bottomed. There are also some daily necessities such as cases, lamps, fuming stoves and piggy banks, which are neither eating utensils nor ordinary storage containers. They were rare or unknown in the last generation.

With the change of funeral customs, various funerary wares were still popular in the Han Dynasty, with a large number, mainly belonging to the gray pottery system. Canghe Jujube first appeared, which was found in the tombs of Qin Dynasty and early Western Han Dynasty, and became popular after the middle of Western Han Dynasty. Other models such as wells, mills, pigsty, pavilions, shacks, farmland and ponds, as well as animal idols such as pigs, sheep, horses, dogs, chickens and ducks, appeared one after another from the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, and by the Eastern Han Dynasty, the variety and quantity had increased. In the Han dynasty, a large number of various pottery figurines were used for burial.

Popular in the south of the Yangtze River, including Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, Jiangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu, it is made of a local clay with high density and strong viscosity. Compared with gray pottery, the firing temperature is higher and the pottery is harder, so it is called hard pottery. Hard pottery in the Han Dynasty inherited the tradition of "geometric seal on hard pottery" in southern China since the late Neolithic period. Generally speaking, round containers are mainly made of wheels. The surface of an object is often printed with fine checkered patterns, or engraved with wavy patterns and zigzag patterns. The types of utensils are mostly cans, cans, pots, boxes, bowls and other containers. Some vessels, such as swastika, three-legged pot, four-legged pot or five-legged pot, have obvious local characteristics in form.

A new invention of pottery industry in Han Dynasty was Mi.

Eastern Han blue glazed porcelain urn

Brown and green glazed pottery. The firing temperature is about 800 degrees Celsius, and the inner tube is brick red. Glaze powder contains a lot of lead oxide, so it is called "lead glaze"; It is also called "northern glazed pottery" because it is mainly popular in the Yellow River basin and the northern region. It began to appear in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, first popular in central Shaanxi and Henan, and quickly spread to the Yellow River basin and the northern region in the late Western Han Dynasty. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Yangtze River valley also saw something. Brown glazed pottery appeared earlier and green glazed pottery appeared later, but the latter was popular in the Eastern Han Dynasty and more common than the former. There are bronze containers such as ding and zhong, models such as warehouses, stoves, wells and pavilions, and animal idols such as chickens and dogs. Because pottery is not firm, the glaze is easy to fall off or deteriorate, and it only exists in tombs but not in residences, so it can be considered as being specially used for tombs. The sudden appearance of lead glazed pottery in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty may be due to the influence of glazed pottery in West Asia after the exchange between Han and the Western Regions. However, some people think that the glazed pottery in West Asia and the lead glazed pottery in Han Dynasty are both fired at low temperature, but the glaze composition is different, and there is no necessary connection between them. Hard pottery in southern China sometimes has a thin layer of glaze, yellow or green, which is very light in color and has a high firing temperature. It belongs to the traditional blue glaze since Shang and Zhou Dynasties. From the middle and late Western Han Dynasty to the early Eastern Han Dynasty, there was a kind of pottery bottle with ears. The tire wall is purple-brown, very hard, and thick blue glaze is applied to the neck and shoulders, which also belongs to the blue glaze system.

At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, celadon first appeared in Shaoxing and Shangyu, Zhejiang. The glaze is light blue, and the texture and temperature meet the standards of porcelain. The shape of the container is mainly four series cans with wide mouth, flat belly and flat bottom. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the same four-series jar was found in Cao Shi's tomb in Bo County, Anhui Province, with bright glaze and pure texture, indicating that the production technology of celadon was quite mature at that time. The appearance of celadon is an important innovation in the history of ancient ceramics in China.

The highest achievement of pottery in Han dynasty can be said to be the production of lead glazed pottery. Glazed pottery in China was discovered as early as the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, but it was rarely produced. After Emperor Xuandi proclaimed himself emperor in the Western Han Dynasty, it appeared more in Guanzhong and Henan, and became a very important pottery variety in the Han Dynasty, which was popularized throughout the country in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The matrix of this kind of glazed pottery is pottery, and the glaze is made of copper-iron oxide as colorant and lead oxide as flux. Lead glazed pottery has a low firing temperature, mostly 700℃, so it is called low-temperature lead glazed pottery. Lead glazed pottery is characterized by low melting temperature, low viscosity at high temperature and high fluidity, which can cover the surface of utensils evenly. The cooled glaze is clear and transparent, flat and smooth, with strong glassiness, high index, radiant and high decorative effect. Because of low firing temperature, weak matrix and high lead content in glaze, most of them are used as decorative utensils and funerary wares. Almost all of them were used as Ming vessels in the Han Dynasty, and their shapes were: ding, box, pot, bin, furnace, well, water tank, mill, pavilion, pool and so on. The successful firing of a large number of lead pottery in the Han Dynasty is not only a great achievement and feature of pottery in the Han Dynasty, but also a precedent for large-scale production of low-temperature glazed pottery in China, which has had a far-reaching impact on pottery production after the Han Dynasty. Tri-color in Tang Dynasty and glaze color in Song and Ming Dynasties all developed from it.

The Han Dynasty lasted nearly 500 years, which was an important period in the history of China. It was in the Han Dynasty that China completed the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age and the final transition from the slave society to the feudal society.

Judging from the development history of China ceramics, the Han Dynasty was a period of transition from primitive celadon to mature celadon. By the Jin dynasty, the original porcelain had been basically eliminated and completed a historic transformation. The porcelain industry did not develop rapidly from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the early Han Dynasty, which was probably related to the social background at that time: exquisite gold and silver utensils or bronzes were popular among princes and nobles, and bamboo and wood utensils or pottery were mostly used by working people. By the Han Dynasty, the porcelain industry had made great progress. At that time, there were many kiln sites in the southeast region, and the molding of drawing blanks with pottery carts replaced the method of laying bricks with clay strips, making the porcelain blanks more fine. The glaze surface has also been greatly improved, the glaze layer is obviously thickened, the luster is strong, the vitrification is good, and the fetal glaze is closely combined. The scientific test and analysis of Han dynasty porcelain specimens unearthed in Zhejiang province show that the matrix of porcelain at that time was dense and transparent and completely sintered. Compared with the original porcelain, the porosity and water absorption are obviously reduced, and the bending strength reaches 765,438+00 kg/cm2, which is close to or equivalent to the standard of modern porcelain. A four-system green glaze jar of Yue Kiln in the Eastern Han Dynasty, which is now in the Cultural Management Institute of Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, has a straight mouth, a short neck, bare shoulders, a bulging belly and a flat bottom. The fetal quality is gray and delicate, the glaze color is green and moist, and the fetal glaze is closely combined. I can't see the characteristics of celadon at first.

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