In prehistoric times, it was believed that ghosts and gods invaded people's bodies with tangible or intangible bodies and caused diseases, which was the first theory to explain diseases. Natural medicine and witchcraft are the first two attitudes that human beings adopt when facing the mystery of disease; Experience and belief are the two foundations of medical trends. In ancient times, including Mesopotamia between the two rivers in West Asia, Egypt in the Nile, China in the Yellow River, and India in the Ganges, all medicine was based on witchcraft-religious medicine, or called monk doctor. Western empirical medicine is gradually influenced by the world outlook. The mechanism in the human body is often explained by natural phenomena. The ancient Egyptians believed that the universe was originally full of chaotic "primitive water". Later, the atmospheric god "Xiu" and the sky goddess Nutt were born, which separated heaven and earth, so life was born in the universe and all activities began.
In the Greek era, based on religious suggestion and psychotherapy, the temple medicine of Esquerra Aslepios, the god of medicine, still existed. However, due to the development of philosophy, empirical medicine with reasonable thinking gradually emerged. They no longer use the power of God to explain the phenomena of the universe, so doctors are completely independent from monks. Thales (639-544b.c), a Greek philosopher of science who is honored as "the father of philosophy" and "the father of science", thinks that water is the source of all things, which is obviously influenced by the Egyptian's "the universe began with the original water", and then his student Anaximenes (588-524b.c) thinks that it is air. Heraclitus (535-475 BC) thought it was a kind of fire, until empedocles (493-443 BC), a student of Pythagoras, was deeply influenced by Pythagorean mathematics and thought that the number "4" had the most special meaning, so he added an element "earth" and advocated it.
By the time of Hippocrates (460-377 BC), the "four elements theory" had developed into humoral pathology, introducing philosophy into medicine for the first time and liberating medicine from mystery and magic. It has four basic concepts:
(1) The whole universe consists of four basic elements (water, gas, fire and earth) with specific properties (wet, dry, hot and cold);
(2) Pairs of opposing forces must be balanced in order to achieve the harmony of the universe and the health of the human body as a small universe (this concept is also emphasized by the number 4);
(3) Seasons have a special influence on people's body and mind (three seasons at first, then divided into four seasons);
(4) There are three kinds of secretions visible to the body at first (blood, mucus and bile), and then bile is divided into yellow and black to become four kinds. His view is that the most important thing in the body is liquid, and all body fluids are composed of blood (damp heat), mucus (cold and dampness), yellow bile (dry heat) and black bile (cold and heat) in different proportions.
When these "liquids" are properly matched, they are healthy cachexia, otherwise they will lead to disease cachexia. There are three stages of disease:
(1) During dyspepsia, the liquid ratio changes due to internal or external factors.
(2) During the digestive period, the body's response to this change is fever or fever.
(3) Excretion period, in which excess liquid is discharged at a critical moment to end the disease or death. Later, Herod Filos of Phila (280 BC) applied this theory to his treatment, using bloodletting and powerful drugs to urge patients to excrete excess body fluids.
At the same time, the second philosophy gradually entered medicine. First, Anaxagoras (460-356 BC) claimed that each element consists of many invisible particles, which are released from food through digestion and recombined into body parts, such as bones and muscles. This theory was later developed into "atomism" by democritus of Clytus (460-365 BC), who believed that any substance is composed of atoms with different sizes, weights, shapes and positions. Later, Jirat Latus Eraistratos (250 BC) also agreed that atoms are the basis of body structure.
When the Greek civilization moved to Rome, Asclepiati Aslepoades (BC 120-70) believed that the human body was composed of the clutch of atoms, and if the atoms were not working properly, it was a disease. This idea is called solidism of solid pathology because it attaches importance to solids.
Because of the opposition between these two theories, many schools of thought flourished around the first century A.D., including dogmatism, empiricism, methodology, pneumatology, eclecticism and so on. It was in the mutual attacks and arguments of these sects that Rome gradually embarked on the road of corruption and destruction.
However, at this time, Glenn Galen, the greatest doctor in ancient times, appeared (13 1-20 1). Among his 500 famous works, 83 medical papers have been handed down completely. Due to the unstable situation in the Middle Ages, people longed for certainty and authority. People can't learn from their own observation, but live by "confidence". Therefore, Glenn's arbitrary, pedantic and even pedantic style coincides with his desire for absolute things at that time, and he left no unsolved mystery.
In addition, Glenn's repeated use of teleological reasoning is easy to be adopted by the Christian church, so everyone worships him as a god, making his influence last for nearly 1500 years, and his works have become ready-made sources of medical information.
Glenn inherited Hippocrates' liquid pathology, but paid special attention to blood, thinking that blood is composed of four elements, and if it is not mixed properly, it will become a disease. In addition, a kind of gas field-pneuma is assumed to be the holder of vitality, which can be divided into three types: natural qi (stored in the liver), life qi (stored in the heart) and animal qi (stored in the brain), and it is related to anatomy and physiology, which becomes his unique opinion.
The earliest person who described the characteristics of inflammation-redness, swelling, heat and pain-was A.A. cornelius Celsus of Rome (30 BC-38 AD). He wrote an encyclopedia and collected all the knowledge at that time, including eight volumes of Medicine, of which two, three and four volumes discussed pathology, especially the third volume. It was not until the end of19th century that there were reasonable theories and mechanisms to explain these characteristics.
From Glenn's death to the middle of the fifteenth century, it was the middle ages of medicine, which can also be said to be the dark ages. The development of medicine can be roughly divided into three periods:
① During the Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) medical period, its contribution was the establishment of medical schools and the immortal preservation and compilation of medical knowledge. After the fall of Fort Constanyine, Byzantine medicine gradually became;
(2) During the Arab medical period, all the streets and alleys followed Glenn's old theory. Due to the admiration for culture, a large number of Greek medical documents were translated, so that after the demise of the Roman Empire, there was a glimmer of light until the dark age of 1000, when the Renaissance blossomed.
(3) In the medical era of Europe, due to the Crusades, there was frequent traffic between the east and the west, and all the traffic had to pass through Salerno and Salerno in the southeast of Naples, Italy, so it quickly became a cultural melting pot and a medical center. Constantinos Africa (10 10- 1087) is the representative of medicine in this period. He spent most of his time teaching at the University of Salerno, translating Greek textbooks kept in Arabia into Latin. His works, including some papers by Hippocrates and Glenn, are called "medical encyclopedia", making humoral pathology once again the most famous in medieval medicine. Doctors in Salerno divide people's temperament into four categories according to their main body fluids: 1, bloody people, "easy to get fat and like to laugh"; 2. Mucky people, "often have to rest and be lazy"; 3. People with bile are "irritable, fierce and irritable" because of the role of hot yellow bile; 4. Melancholy people, "dignified expression, lack of courage, often feel lonely", are all due to the role of cold drying black bile. It was not until 1858 that Phil Shaw published Cytopathology that this theory of body fluids became his opponent. Phil Shaw turned this "liquid theory" into a "solid theory" and regarded cells as the basic components of the human body.
Due to the expansion of political power, medical centers have also moved to Bologna and Padua in Italy, Paris and Montpellier in France, and Oxford and Cambridge in Britain. In a.d. 1240, Emperor Frederick II issued a decree to make anatomy a compulsory subject for doctors, which led to the publication of Anatomy in Mondinaud (1275- 1325) in a.d.13/6. This book was published to the 40th edition and became the standard teaching material before Vesalius was born.
The development of European medicine didn't surface until 15 and 16 centuries, because after the Renaissance, all the academics became lively, humanism gradually rose, and the outlook on life born was gradually replaced by the outlook on life after China's entry into WTO. There is a tendency to study free truth in philosophy, and Descartes of France advocates rationalism and emphasizes the importance of experiment. Bacon advocated empiricism and proposed "induction" to make up for the deficiency of "deduction". In Kant, Germany, he synthesized and established a new system of modern philosophy. In science, the Polish Copernicus established the theory that the sun is the center of the universe. Kepler, Germany, put forward the theory that planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits; Newton, an Englishman, discovered the law of gravity. Columbus's discovery of the New World and the invention of printing are great discoveries of this period.
Careful observation, independent research and relying on the trend of natural laws are the reasons for the gradual prosperity of modern medicine. The artist Da Vinci (1452- 15 19) made a series of sketches and notes on the structure and function of the human body, combining art with anatomy. In fact, Leonardo da Vinci was the first person to doubt Glenn, and his research on the heart and blood vessels came to a different conclusion from Glenn. He found that the valve only allowed blood to flow to one side, but unfortunately there was no further explanation.
Modern medicine can be said to have started in 1543. This year, Visalius Andreas Visalius (15 14- 1565), 28, published the first complete human anatomy textbook: Human Anatomy. This is the most meaningful and beautiful textbook in the whole medical history. He overthrew the traditional Glenn theory, because Glenn's narrative was only based on the anatomy of lower animals such as apes and goats. Wexler's anatomy has gradually become the basis of all medicine.
/kloc-there were several famous doctors worth mentioning in the 6th century, such as Pala Celsus (1493- 154 1), who openly opposed the doctors who were already antique at that time to cling to Moratti and Glen. This kind of resistance to authority, contempt for traditional attitudes and advocacy of continuous innovation on the basis of experiments can be said to be the pioneers of the medical revolution. Paavo was the first person who advocated that medicine should be based on extensive knowledge of nature. He believes that the human body is a form that integrates all external natural laws and is a small universe corresponding to the big universe. Farah casto's girolamo fracastoro (1484- 1553) was the earliest epidemiologist. In A.D. 1546, he published "On Infectious Diseases", suggesting that it was spread by contact with air, denying Glenn's theory of body fluid corruption and fever. Before the invention of microscope, his theory was quite accurate. In A.D. 1530, he published a set of books on syphilis, including the famous Poem on Syphilis, from which the word "syphilis" came. The original patient's name was Sipires, but he was a pig farmer.
/kloc-After the end of the 6th century, with the arrival of the new century, people's thoughts have changed a lot, especially in the University of Padua, Italy. After planting seeds in Uss, Vesaliua, they gradually blossom and bear fruit. First, Columbus successfully proved that blood flows from the heart to the lungs, and then from the lungs back to the heart. Later, Gabriel Fallopius of Fallobio discovered the female fallopian tube and named it after it. When Fabrizio Girolamo Fabrizio took over, he found the venous valve. Finally, an outstanding talent appeared among his students, named William Harvey (1578- 1658). He is English. After graduating from Caius College of Cambridge University, he couldn't wait to go to Padua University for further study. He received his degree from the University of Padua in 160. Padova's training fascinated Harvey with anatomy, and he advocated to solve the dynamic concepts-pulse and breathing by direct observation and experimental proof. In Harvey's time, Glenn's concept of anatomy was still deeply rooted in people's hearts. Glenn believes that digested food is refined into blood in the liver and then flows through the blood vessels in a mysterious way. In this operation, some blood flows into the right heart, then into the left heart through the small hole in the diaphragm, and then to other organs. At the same time, he claimed that the blood in the heart flows to the lungs, which can make the blood dissipate heat and maintain a certain temperature, and at the same time provide the "vitality" needed by the blood to control its biological function.
What bothers Harvey about Glenn's theory is: Where does the huge amount of blood discharged from each heartbeat come from? From food? Or is it made continuously? Harvey assumes that when the heart contracts, the blood output is 2 ounces each time, so if a person beats 72 times per minute, he will output 864 ounces per hour. It seems impossible to produce so much blood every hour, so the only logical inference is that the ejected blood must pass through some blood vessels and then be sent back to the heart, so the only blood vessel that is sent back to the blood is the vein. The next question to prove is whether venous blood will flow to the heart forever. The venous valve discovered by his teacher Fabrizio at the University of Padua came in handy. Harvey solved this problem with a simple experiment and observation: he squeezed the vein in his hand with a stick and found that the arrangement of venous valves made it almost impossible for blood to flow to the end. In this way, Harvey discovered the secret of human blood circulation and overturned Glenn's statement that blood circulates in a closed vascular system, and the diaphragm of the heart has no pores, but absorbs air through the small circulation of the lungs, then flows back to the heart and finally circulates throughout the body. 1628, he published these views in a book about heart movement. Harvey's blood circulation theory has an obvious loophole, that is, how blood flows from artery to vein. This leak won't be filled until the microscope comes out.
Microscope is the most important discovery in the development of medicine and general science. In ancient times, people knew to use ground lenses as magnifying glasses, and glasses were made in the Middle Ages. A Dutch manufacturer, Johnson zacarias Janssen, tried to combine several lenses to increase the magnification. The first paper written by microscope was written by Steiluti Francisco Stelluti in A.D. 1625, and the content was to study the structure of honey. At that time, the microscopes were very rough, and the magnification was not more than ten times, until the thunder in Holland? Anthony von Leuwenhook (1632-1723) made a microscope with a magnification of 270 times. Bu Shanglei has never been to college, but his interest in microscopes has gone crazy. He was the first person to know blood cells (Marcello Malpighi mistook blood cells for "fat globules") and made a careful study of sperm. At the same time, he also noticed that skeletal muscle has a striped appearance.
166 1 year, Italian anatomist Marcelo? Marcello Malpighi (1628- 1694) observed the frog's lungs and mesentery, and finally found that the terminal artery and vein were connected by a vascular network as thin as hair, and named it capillary capillary capillary, which filled the loophole of Harvey's theory and completed the theory of blood circulation. At the same time, it also won the reputation of "the father of micro-medicine".