(A) persuasive arguments

Argumentative essay is an article that puts forward opinions or opinions on a certain discussion object and explains reasons to convince readers. Its basic feature is the persuasiveness of argument.

The purpose of argumentative writing is to convince readers. No matter what problems and things it discusses, what opinions it expresses, what opinions it puts forward, what reasons it tells, or what opinions it refutes, it is to convince readers and convince them. If the basic feature of expository writing is its explanatory nature, and the object of explanation should be clearly explained to readers, then the basic feature of argumentative writing is its persuasiveness. In the type of thinking, we should answer "why" and tell the truth to convince readers. Ye Shengtao said: "Explanatory writing is successful with' clear explanation'. The success of argumentation depends on' convincing others'. " This shows the basic characteristics of argumentative writing.

An argumentative essay should not only discuss the point of view of an object of discussion and express the attitude of the author (that is, the point of view), but also explain why this point of view is put forward and why this attitude is held. This process of explaining "why" is the process of proof. A complete proof must consist of topics, arguments and arguments. These parts are the elements that constitute the characteristics of argumentative writing. They have different tasks.

Thesis refers to the problem that the author puts forward in the article to be discussed and is the object of argument.

The paper does not show the author's understanding of objective things. For example, "Where do people's correct ideas come from?" It's a rhetorical question, no judgment, no judgment, only asking questions and waiting for answers. On authority, the direction of the youth movement, and whose literature and art belong to us? This is not a judgment. They all define and limit the scope and focus of the article, determine the direction and way of discussion, and are the clues that run through the content and organizational structure of the full text. Topics usually appear in the topic or preface, and the expression of topics is rhetorical questions, such as "what is talent science" and phrases that highlight the main idea, such as "the direction of youth movement". The topic discussed in an article is the center of the whole discussion. Not only the argumentative part of the article should revolve around it, but also the content of the critical paper should obey it. It is the central clue of the full text and plays a role in controlling the full text.

Argument, also called judgment, in logic, argument is a judgment whose authenticity needs to be confirmed. It is the author's views, opinions and attitudes on the issues discussed. It is the center of the whole argumentation process, shouldering the task of answering "what to demonstrate" and clearly indicating what the author is in favor of and against.

In a long article, arguments are divided into central arguments and sub-arguments.

The central argument is the author's most basic view of the problem under discussion. It is the most important ideological viewpoint put forward by the author in the article, and it is a high generalization and concentration of all arguments.

Sub-arguments are some ideological viewpoints subordinate to and used to elaborate the central argument. Every argument also needs to be demonstrated. Any argument that is proved to be effective becomes a powerful argument at the center of the argument.

Argument is used to prove the basis of an argument. In logic, it is a judgment to determine the truth of a topic. In the proof, it undertakes the task of answering "why".

According to its nature and characteristics, debate can be divided into factual debate and theoretical debate. Factual argument is a true description and generalization of objective things, which has a direct and realistic character, so it is the most convincing argument to prove the argument. The so-called "facts speak louder than words" is the truth. The factual arguments include individual cases, general cases and figures. Theoretical arguments refer to those viewpoints that come from practice and have been proved and tested by long-term practice and come to a correct conclusion. It includes the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, the Party's line, principles and policies, scientific definitions, rules and laws of different periods, general axioms, common sense, idioms, proverbs and so on.

Argumentative writing is a logical process and method to prove an argument with arguments, that is, what kind of logical connection between materials and opinions, such as deductive reasoning or inductive reasoning between arguments and arguments. It is charged with the task of answering "how to prove".

No matter how long an argumentative paper is, it must have several elements: title, argument, argument and argument. These elements are closely integrated and indispensable. * * * Same as completing the certification task.

(b) The arrangement should be logical.

It is an important link in argumentative writing to demonstrate the arrangement of arguments and arguments. The arrangement is good or bad, which is directly related to whether the central argument of the article can be prominent and convincing. Proper arrangement, not only smooth thinking, clear hierarchy, but also full of logical persuasion effect; On the contrary, it is not only dull and unclear, but also lacks logical persuasion. It can be seen that in argumentative writing, how to arrange arguments and arguments with logical effects cannot be ignored.

The arrangement rules of articles in various styles are basically the same, but due to the different thinking forms of various styles, the arrangement also has its own characteristics. Argumentative writing is different from descriptive writing. Mainly arranged according to the logical connection of things. Argumentative essays are generally arranged in the order of asking questions, analyzing problems and solving problems, which are manifested in three parts: preface, theory and conclusion. People usually call it "three-stage". This "three-stage" is the basic type. Because the topics, arguments and arguments have a wide range of contents, not only the preface, theories and conclusions are varied, but also how each small part raises, analyzes and solves problems.

1, preface theory

Preface is the beginning of an argumentative paper, that is, to ask questions and clarify the central argument, so that readers can have a general understanding of the content of the article and attract attention. Common preface writing methods are as follows:

A directly state your own views and opinions and put forward the central argument. For example:

It is an important economic policy to introduce foreign advanced technology and equipment step by step and selectively, so that the introduction work can better serve the rapid development of the national economy.

B explain the background, the purpose and reason of writing. For example:

What is the criterion for testing truth? This is a problem that proletarian revolutionary instructors have long solved. However, over the years, due to the destruction of the Gang of Four and a large number of distorted propaganda by public opinion tools under their control, this issue has been confused. In order to profoundly criticize the Gang of Four and eliminate their pernicious influence, we must set things right.

C prompt content, briefly introduce the full text. For example, the first paragraph of "On Correctly Handling Contradictions among the People":

This is a general topic about correctly handling contradictions among the people. For the convenience of narration, it is divided into twelve small topics. We should also talk about the contradiction between ourselves and the enemy here, but the focus is on the contradictions among the people.

Asking questions about things makes people think. For example:

Comrade Meng Xiancheng of WISCO has a positive opinion on the project of1.7m mill, which is worth reading and thinking carefully. Spent the money saved by the people of the whole country and introduced the most advanced rolling equipment and technology in the contemporary era. Why can't you get the economic effect you deserve? How to reduce or even eliminate such construction projects that are not worth the loss in the future?

E phenomena from daily life. For example;

There are two hens in the cage. One likes singing, the other likes being quiet. According to the phenomenon that hens can sing after laying eggs, the owner thinks that all eggs are laid by singing chickens, so he loves it very much and feeds it with cockroaches specially caught. But after a long time, the secret was revealed: the singing chicken laid few eggs, one a day if it didn't bark. As soon as the eggs landed, the singing chicken didn't sing and left the henhouse, and the singing chicken stood beside the eggs and shouted.

Therefore, I advocate that people should talk less and do more practical things.

G quotes classics, saying that the ancient way is today. For example, "Don't spank wrong" says that leading cadres should blame themselves for making mistakes and don't shirk their responsibilities. It started like this:

There is a story about Di Ku's staff in The Shadow of the Dragon Whip: "In the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Di Ku's surname was Lian Yu, and there were often flies in his room, so it was called the door staff. Yue: What can I do for you? So let it in. " Originally, the janitor was only responsible for looking after the house and couldn't control the flies, but Cuddy, a stupid janitor, let the flies in and beat the janitor because he was not loyal to his duties. This is the wrong ass.

The beginning of the above narrative part is just a few common types.

Preface is the first argumentative article, which plays an important role in the article. A good preface is concise and to the point, which can not only clearly ask questions, but also affect the whole body and be fascinating. Catch the reader.

2. This theory

This theory is the analysis part of argumentation and the key part of argument. Its task is to analyze problems and organize arguments to prove the correctness of arguments or refute fallacies.

There should be strict logic in the arrangement and demonstration level of this part. The connection between arguments, the order of discussion, and the reasoning at different levels of the article should be organized according to the inherent laws and persuasion effects of things. It is necessary to make the outline open and interlocking, and to make the ideas and materials organically and logically unified.

The arrangement of this theory generally has the following forms:

stand side by side

Parallel type is also called parallel type. Its arrangement is characterized by discussing several major issues involved in the central argument respectively. The relationship between several levels is parallel, and they show the argument of the article from different angles. For example, Zhang Youyu's On Perfecting the Socialist Legal System focuses on perfecting the socialist legal system and using it correctly to ensure the smooth progress of the "four modernizations". He talked about three aspects: the relationship between socialist democracy and socialist legal system; The important role of the current socialist legal system; Effectively ensuring the implementation of the law is the key to further improve the socialist legal system.

B propulsion type

Push type is also called progressive type. Its arrangement is characterized by the in-depth and gradual development of the relationship between all levels. For example, Zhou Enlai's Creating a Democratic Atmosphere solemnly discusses the issue of artistic democracy. At the beginning of the article, it is pointed out that there is a bad atmosphere now, that is, the democratic style is not enough. Then, aiming at the disadvantages of "one-word-for-one" that others are not allowed to speak, the article expounds the truth that "our opinions are all allowed to be discussed and discussed" Finally, it focuses on the analysis and criticism of the bad atmosphere of "five sons get into the topic" (framing, grasping braids, digging roots, wearing hats and hitting sticks). Only by getting rid of the bad atmosphere of "five sons entering the topic" can we establish a democratic atmosphere. Another example is Tao Zhu's Great Ideal, from far to near, from ancient times to the present. It is our noblest and greatest ideal to realize capitalism step by step around the central argument.

The combination of propulsion and juxtaposition

Articles arranged in this way are generally longer. Such articles are usually arranged in other arrangements. For example, "Analysis of Social Strata in China" asks questions at the beginning, then analyzes each stratum, and finally draws a conclusion. The article goes deep step by step, spreads out layer by layer, and adopts push type. However, on the level of analyzing each class, the parallel formula is used to analyze the landlord comprador class, middle class, petty bourgeoisie, semi-proletariat and proletariat one by one. As far as the whole article is concerned, this is called push type, which includes coordinate type. The author used this combination form to perfectly express the content of the article and received good expression effect.

These are the three basic forms of argumentative writing. Form serves the content, and which part should be used in this paper depends on the needs of the content of the article, and can not be arranged at will.

3. Conclusion

The conclusion is the problem-solving part of the argumentative essay. The introduction raises questions, the theory analyzes the problems, and the conclusion gives the answers. The conclusion is the synthesis, generalization, summary and perfection of the full text.

(3) Demonstration method

Argumentative writing is mainly argumentative writing. Argumentation, from the perspective of formal logic, is the whole logical reasoning process of proving an argument with arguments. This process shows what logical methods are used to connect or unify arguments.

So, how are arguments and arguments related? Or how does the argument prove the argument? This is the problem of argumentation method. The method of argument is related to the form of reasoning, but it is not the same. It is varied, and people can use it flexibly according to different needs. Here are some common ones.

1, for example

An example is to use typical concrete facts as arguments to prove the argument. This is the usual way of "putting the facts". This is a method to demonstrate by inductive reasoning, which is easy to master and widely used.

For example, the most important thing is to pay attention to the consistency and close unity of arguments and arguments, and there can be no distance. For example, there is an article about writing to be diligent in observation and thinking, such as:

Shakespeare is a famous great writer and poet. He is good at observing life, refining materials, writing a lot of tragicomedy and poetry, and finally becoming an immortal master of art. Newton is a great physicist. When he enjoys the cool in the evening, he finds that the apple fell to the ground. Why not fall into the sky? After repeated practice, it is finally concluded that all objects on the surface of the earth are affected by gravity.

Here is an example of Shakespeare. Although it is not thorough enough, it is always directly related to the argument. It is inappropriate to quote Newton's example, because although he also observed and thought, he did not use words.

2. Extension of events

This method uses known logical arguments to prove arguments. This is a method to demonstrate by deductive reasoning, so it is also called "deductive method", such as the following passage:

Resolutely implementing the central line and policies and promoting democracy are not contradictory, but complement each other. The decision-making of the central government is formed on the basis of widely promoting democracy. The Central Committee allows comrades to put forward their opinions according to normal organizational procedures, but it will never allow them to engage in activities that are not allowed in party constitution. In other words, we have not restricted democracy. However, a * * * party member, especially leading cadres, is not allowed to express opinions that are contrary to or inconsistent with the Central Committee. As we all know, we can only win if we keep pace.

The "victory can only be achieved if we keep up" mentioned here is a well-known "truth", which strongly proves that "cadres and party member should unite around the CPC Central Committee and resolutely implement the central line and policies".

The application of rational argument is often manifested in quoting famous sayings and epigrams. Famous aphorisms have recognized truth, and it is very convincing to prove the truth of a specific thing with them. There are many such examples, so I won't repeat them here.

When using logical arguments, especially when quoting famous aphorisms, we should pay attention to:

The facts and arguments cited by A really constitute a close memory connection.

B In general, you should clarify and explain the quotation, and don't draw a conclusion after the quotation, so as not to give people a superficial feeling.

In addition to argumentation, C must also quote a lot of arguments, and the quotations should be concise. The author should be good at grasping the essence of quotation.

3. disprove

As the name implies, disproof does not directly prove the argument from the front, but indirectly proves the argument from the back. This is a method to demonstrate through deductive reasoning. Let's look at the following example first:

If we oppose seeking truth from facts, proceeding from reality and combining theory with practice, what can we call Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought? Where will this lead us? Obviously, that can only lead us to idealism and metaphysics, and can only lead to the loss of work and the failure of the revolution.

After the word "if" in this passage, the reduction to absurdity is used: not to say that seeking truth from facts, what will happen if you don't seek truth from facts, to prove the significance of seeking truth from facts. In an argument, to prove the correctness of one's active argument, one must first prove that another argument that contradicts this argument is wrong, or prove that another argument that contradicts it is wrong. This is reduction to absurdity.

4. Similar

This method is to compare some similar aspects of a class of things and prove the correctness or fallacy of this thing with the correctness or fallacy of another thing. This is a method of drawing inferences from one instance, for example:

Looking back at the historical fact that Trotskyism seized power in the Soviet Union in 1923, we can easily see that the activities of Wang Zhangjiang and Yao Gang of Four usurped the party and seized power in China in 1976 were in many ways the repetition of Trotsky's old tricks. Essentially, the Gang of Four is no different from Trotsky's gang. They are all unscrupulous careerists, vermin who bring disaster to the country and people, unscrupulous schemers and out-and-out counter-revolutionaries. Before and after the death of the great leaders of Communist party member and the dictatorship of the proletariat, these two gangs took the same counter-revolutionary road of conspiring to usurp the party and seize power and suffered the same shameful end of complete bankruptcy.

There are many similarities between the Gang of Four and Trotskyists, which can be compared. By analogy, the counter-revolutionary features of the Gang of Four who usurped the party and seized power are even more exposed.

In this analogy, we should pay special attention to the fact that analogies must be of the same kind and have similarities in essence, just like the above example. If things do not belong to the same category, although there are some similarities, they can only be metaphorical, not analogical. For example, comparing the revolutionary people's resolute struggle with reactionaries with Song Wu's struggle with tigers can only be said to be a metaphor, not an analogy.

Finally, talk about the problem of practicing basic skills. Basic skills are very important to the pen holder, and it is impossible to practice without them. As the saying goes, "fist never leaves hand, song never leaves mouth". Painters often paint and singers often sing, but how can people who write lyrics not write for months? ……

Here, writing, painting and singing can be compared, because they all belong to the category of literary and artistic creation and have the same essential attributes.

Step 5 compare

Contrast is two diametrically opposed situations in a comparative argument. Because the two sides of the comparison form sharp contrast and set off each other, this method can especially highlight the nature of the one hand and has strong argumentation, so it is also widely used.

There are two kinds of contrast: one is "horizontal ratio" and the other is "vertical ratio". "Horizontal ratio" is to compare two completely different things in the same period. For example, in Zan Sacrifice Spirit, the deeds of Luan Fu, an associate professor of Taiyuan University of Technology, a young female scientist who returned to China to settle down, Xu, a 90-year-old man from Shanghai Institute of Biological Products, and Guo Xiulian, a young woman from inorganic light board factory in Xiangshan County, Zhejiang Province, are listed as models, and the author warmly praised people's sacrifice spirit. Then, the article criticized others:

Unfortunately, some people still lack this spirit of sacrifice. What they think is not the interests of the party and the people, nor the great cause of the four modernizations, but the immediate "interests" of individuals. Isn't it? ..... This extremely selfish outlook on life, compared with the people in front, is how small and how disproportionate it is to our historical task today?

The spirit of sacrifice is precious and noble, and it is even more precious because it is in opposition to the generalized outlook on life. Truth, goodness, beauty, falsehood, ugliness and ugliness always exist in comparison and develop in struggle. People realize this in practice, so they can often use this argument method in writing.

"Vertical comparison" is to compare the same thing at different times and under different circumstances. For example, when discussing the correctness of a party's economic policy, some articles often talk about the past and present production situation of a region and a unit and the changes in people's lives, and this method of comparison is used.

6. Causality and mutual evidence

This is an argument method to prove an argument by analyzing things and revealing the causal relationship between arguments and arguments. It can use reasons to prove "results" as arguments; Prove the inevitability of the result with the inevitability of the cause. For example, a passage in Liu Shaoqi's "The Class Nature of Man":

Man's class nature is determined by his class status. That is to say, people in a certain group stand on a certain class position for a long time, that is, they stand on a certain social production position and produce, live and struggle for a long time in a certain way, that is, they produce their special lifestyle, special interests, special requirements, special psychology, thoughts, habits, opinions and styles, and their special relationship with people and various things in other groups. , but different from other groups of people, or the opposite. This forms a person's special character and class nature.

This passage first talks about the result, that is, the argument, and then talks about the reason that contributed to this result, that is, the argument.

7.metaphor

The method of using metaphor to explain the truth can be called "metaphor proof method", which is a method of reasoning by analogy. "Metaphor is clever and reasonable", and just the right metaphor often helps to explain the truth. Therefore, this method is also widely used in argumentation. There are many such examples. For example, Mao Zedong pointed out in his article "An Extremely Important Policy" that some comrades didn't know enough about the significance of implementing the policy of "better troops and simpler administration", and used three metaphors to explain it in a simple way, namely, changing clothes with the seasons, the Monkey King dealing with Princess Iron Fan and "Qianlv". Another example is the article "Laying eggs, singing chickens and others" quoted in the introduction. The whole article uses the image of a chicken to help explain the problem, which gives people a concrete and vivid feeling. Metaphor is a good way to help reasoning, but because any metaphor is flawed, especially because it lacks essential internal connection with argumentation (some metaphors are completely fictional things in literary works), it cannot be used as the main method of argumentation. In order to demonstrate the problem thoroughly and effectively, we mainly rely on the study of actual materials. "An extremely important policy" is thoroughly and convincingly explained, mainly by scientific analysis of the situation at that time, not by several metaphors.

8. reduce to absurdity

Returning to absurdity will lead to fallacy. This method first assumes that the other party's argument is correct, and then draws an obviously absurd conclusion on this premise, thus proving that the other party's argument is wrong. This method is only used to refute the wrong view.

The above lists several main and commonly used argumentation methods, among which except reduction to absurdity is dedicated to refuting articles, the rest are all applicable to argumentative articles and refuting articles.

As a reflection of human thinking activities, the method of argumentation is not difficult to master. Sometimes, we find it difficult, not only because books are too fragmentary and abstract when introducing relevant knowledge, but also because learning is out of touch with practice. Connecting with practice, any theory or knowledge is easy to understand and master. The same is true of mastering argumentation methods. As long as we link the study of these knowledge with our daily cognitive activities, learn more excellent articles in newspapers and keep practicing writing, we will be able to skillfully use these methods.

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