Key words: heat, good conductor, bad conductor, atom, free electron, motion frequency, infrared light wave, * * * vibration.
1 temperature and heat
The author expounds the physical meaning of temperature through a series of papers. Temperature is not a reflection of the irregular motion intensity of a large number of molecules (atoms) as mentioned in classical statistical physics. Even if the molecules of an object do not move irregularly, even if the object is a monomolecular (atomic) object, the object will have the same temperature. For guest molecules (atoms), the volume of molecules (atoms), the radius or frequency of electrons moving around the nucleus outside the nucleus and other properties change with the change of temperature. It is by using the property that the volume of molecules (atoms) changes with temperature that people make thermometers. We can also use the property that the frequency of electrons moving around the nucleus changes with temperature to measure the temperature.
In fact, in order to know the temperature of atomic and non-atomic objects, we must put thermometers in them, so measuring the heat exchange between atoms and measured objects (space) must take place first. As long as the heat absorbed or released by the measuring atom is small, it will not affect the thermal properties of the measured object (space). When the heat exchange reaches a dynamic balance, it will be good to measure the volume of atoms and the movement frequency of electrons outside the nucleus.
As we know, the temperature of an atom will inevitably rise after it absorbs heat, and the atomic volume will inevitably increase. This change requires a process-the electron's movement rate outside the nucleus increases and the frequency increases-the electron cannot move in the original orbit, but it produces an outward attribute movement-the electron's movement radius increases, the movement rate decreases and the frequency decreases. Therefore, for the same temperature-measuring atom, if the movement frequency of electrons outside its nucleus is smaller, the temperature of the measured object (space) will be higher (see the author's On Absolute Temperature and Gaseous Equation for details). Here, the author will not discuss the relationship between the temperature and the movement frequency of electrons outside the nucleus, but the key content to be discussed is what is the "heat" absorbed or released by the temperature measuring atom? How does it absorb and release "heat"? Judging from the above temperature change process, as long as the movement frequency of electrons outside the nucleus can be changed, the atom will certainly absorb or release "heat". So, what process can change the speed of electrons outside the nucleus?
In the author's series of papers, the reason for the accelerated motion of objects has been discussed-(1) environmental free particles have a density gradient; (2) Time change rate of free particle velocity in a certain spatial position in the environment; (3) For moving objects, environmental free particles have velocity curl; (4) For an object composed of atoms and molecules, environmental free atoms (molecules) have a temperature gradient. In such a space environment, the motion state of the object will inevitably change. The author calls the accelerated motion of this object due to environmental factors as environmental attribute motion, which is called attribute motion for short. In other words, the acceleration of an object is not the result of any force, but its inherent property in the environment.
Since temperature is a reflection of the movement frequency of electrons around the nucleus outside the nucleus, once the electrons are out of the bondage of the nucleus, no matter how fast they move, they have nothing to do with temperature. Similarly, particles other than atoms or objects composed of atoms have nothing to do with temperature. Therefore, some particles smaller than atoms, such as electrons, protons, neutrons, quarks ... dark matter electrons, neutral particles and so on. The movement of these free particles has nothing to do with temperature, only the movement of electrons around the nucleus outside the nucleus is related to temperature. Therefore, the fourth point of the above reason for the accelerated motion of objects only applies to atomic objects or objects composed of atoms. The change of electron velocity outside the nucleus of an object is the fundamental reason and essence of the temperature change of the object. We should rule out this fourth point when we study why the temperature of an object changes and why the speed of electron movement changes.
In addition, for the third point, the attribute acceleration caused by the velocity curl of the environmental free particles on the moving object is always perpendicular to the moving speed direction of the moving object, that is to say, this attribute acceleration can only change the speed direction of the object, but not the speed size. Therefore, for the moving electrons outside the nucleus, if there is such an attribute acceleration, it can only increase the speed of the electrons in a certain fixed direction, and it is also possible to make the electrons finally break away from the shackles of the virtual environment around the nucleus and fly to the space outside the nucleus, forming real free electrons-photoelectrons with photoelectric effect are a good example; Either you can only change the direction of the electron speed, but you can't change its speed. In other words, it is absolutely impossible for this environment to change the frequency of electrons moving around the nucleus outside the nucleus, and it is also impossible to change the temperature. Therefore, if there is energy in this environment, it must not be thermal energy.
For the space with unbalanced free particle density, the irreversibility of particle density gradient direction determines that it is impossible for electrons outside the nucleus to move around the nucleus once, and of course it is impossible to change the frequency of their movement around the nucleus. Therefore, the environment for heating the object is not the density gradient environment of free particles.
By eliminating them one by one, we have every reason to believe that the environment that can make the object warm up must be the environment with the speed change rate of free particles in a fixed position!
So how is this environment formed? How can we make the velocity of free particles in a fixed position in space have a time change rate? In fact, through analysis, we can know that in any sinusoidal fluctuating space, the velocity of particles in any fixed position or any fixed medium in the space is constantly changing, and it must have a time change rate. In other words, there must be some kind of sine wave that can change the speed and frequency of electrons moving around the nucleus outside the nucleus-it can change the temperature of the object!
Among all the fluctuations, there are neutral and electronegative fluctuations, that is, both light waves and electromagnetic waves have the above-mentioned functions of changing the speed and frequency of electrons moving around the nucleus, but the frequency of known sinusoidal electromagnetic waves is too small, far less than that of electrons moving around the nucleus, so it is of little or no help to change the speed and frequency of electrons moving around the nucleus.
Only neutron waves-light waves-are generated by neutrons excited by the movement of electrons outside the nucleus around the nucleus. The frequency of light waves is the same as that of electrons around the nucleus. When light waves irradiate atoms, neutron motion with sinusoidal motion speed is generated in the spatial region of atoms, that is, equivalent environmental acceleration is generated. If the movement frequency of electrons outside the nucleus is close to the fluctuation frequency of neutrons, and the speed direction of electrons is the same, then electrons will increase their speed because of their nature movement, leading to their movement. Because the neutron fluctuation in space is not only excited by the movement of an atom's extranuclear electrons, but also by an infinite number of electrons, there are always fluctuations with the same speed direction and similar frequency as the extranuclear electrons in these fluctuations, which make the atom warm up. Therefore, in fact, the endothermic process of atoms is a process in which electrons outside the nucleus move in the neutron fluctuation environment to improve their own speed, so the so-called heat is essentially the time imbalance of the speed of neutron media in the space environment.
The extranuclear electron of each atom always moves in a neutral fluctuation environment, and it can always move in this environment to increase kinetic energy-heat absorption, thus increasing the temperature of the atom. At the same time, because these extra-nuclear electrons move in the neutron environment, each electron excites neutron fluctuations in the process of movement, and part of the original kinetic energy of electrons will be transformed into various imbalances of neutron fluctuations again, so the kinetic energy of electrons will be reduced, the effective radius of atoms will be reduced, and the temperature of atoms will also be reduced. Therefore, the process of neutron fluctuation in electron excitation is actually the exothermic process of atomic objects.
In any environmental space, in a certain period of time, due to the existence of various factors, the size of neutron fluctuation in this space is determined to be a relatively stable value. Therefore, if a temperature-measuring atom is placed in this space, the extranuclear electrons of the temperature-measuring atom will not only absorb heat but also release heat in the environment of neutron fluctuation in space. When the heat absorption and heat release of an atom reach a balance, the temperature of the atom is stable. This is the principle of temperature measurement, and this is the essence of heat!
2 Thermal convection
What is the essence of heat? It is neutral fluctuation-the intensity of time imbalance of vibration speed of light wave, especially infrared light wave medium! Once light wave is formed, it propagates in space, and the vibration speed of light wave medium also propagates in space. Of course, the time imbalance of medium vibration speed also propagates in space. Therefore, the process of light propagation is also the process of heat propagation, and the process of heat propagation is also the process of light propagation. The author once thought that heat is the energy carried by infrared light waves in dark matter tracking (VI), which is on light, heat and electromagnetic waves. This is only the author's one-sided conclusion that the relationship between light and heat has not been very clear, so I would like to thank him and make a special correction.
We call the process of spreading heat by light waves thermal radiation. Among the three modes of propagation, thermal radiation, thermal convection and heat conduction, thermal radiation is the most basic and important mode. In fact, thermal convection and heat conduction are both heat transfer methods based on thermal radiation.
Thermal convection is a unique way for gases near planets to transfer heat. In the article "On Gravitation, Gravitation and the Attribute Force of Objects", the author discusses the distribution of air density near the earth due to neutron density gradient. The air density gradient anywhere near the earth is equal in size and opposite in direction, which makes the attribute acceleration of air molecules vertically downward and vertically upward cancel each other out, and air molecules appear in front of us in a relatively balanced state. It will not all fall to the ground and will not all be evenly distributed in the whole space (of course, this is also an incomplete discussion, and the comprehensive discussion must consider the influence of temperature gradient on air density distribution. See the author's On the Original Form of Energy (3).
In a heat source somewhere, electrons outside the nucleus of the heat source constantly excite neutrons, producing neutrons with fluctuating intensity-light waves. Air molecules (atoms) near the heat source exist in these neutron fluctuation environments. Air molecules (atoms) absorb heat, the space occupied by each molecule (atom) increases, the temperature increases, the local volume of gas increases and the density decreases, so the air near the heat source forms two gradients-if the air is in an environment without neutron density gradient, that is, there is no gravity field, then the acceleration of air molecules in this molecular density gradient environment is always less than that in the temperature gradient environment. When the heating power of the heat source is low, gas molecules only move slowly in the direction of temperature gradient, while when the heating power of the heat source is high, the attribute acceleration of gas molecules in the direction of temperature gradient will increase, and even a strong explosion may occur! In a word, gas molecules just diffuse outward around the heat source, and their direction is certain, so it is impossible for gas molecules to diffuse to the center of the heat source at the same time, that is, thermal convection cannot occur.
If this is the heat source near the whole celestial body (such as the earth), then the situation is completely different. There is a gravitational field around the celestial body, so the air near the heat source not only has the above-mentioned temperature gradient and local air density gradient in opposite directions, but also air molecules move in the neutral density gradient around the earth and the air density gradient in the big environment. Therefore, in addition to the above-mentioned diffusion movement centered on the heat source, air molecules are more important, because the density of the heated local air is reduced, but at the same time, the air molecules above it have a sinking movement, which fills the vacancy of the space volume caused by the floating of the heated air and reaches the vicinity of the heat source, and then heats it under the radiation of heat from the heat source ... This is the principle of the formation of thermal convection (the author also discussed thermal convection in the article "On Buoyancy").
Thermal light wave, visible light wave and infrared light wave.
In previous papers, the author always thinks that heat is the time imbalance of particle velocity in infrared light wave media. Why does the author suddenly change his argument here and think that heat is the time imbalance of particle velocity in light wave media? Doesn't this greatly expand the frequency range that can produce thermal neutral fluctuations? To understand the change of the author's point of view, it is necessary to find out whether the visible light wave has thermal effect. If visible light waves do have thermal effects, then the author's change of view is correct, and vice versa.
The author emphasizes once again that for atomic objects, the essence of temperature is the speed (frequency) of electrons moving around the nucleus outside the nucleus, and the essence of temperature change is the change of speed (frequency) of electrons moving around the nucleus outside the nucleus! Therefore, as long as visible light can change the speed (frequency) of electrons moving around the nucleus outside the nucleus, it can be said that visible light has a thermal effect.
Theoretically speaking, in the visible light environment space, the speed of the extranuclear electrons moving around the nucleus can completely occur in this environment, which increases the speed. The closer the frequency of visible light is to the movement frequency of the outermost electron of the atom, the more obvious the change of the movement speed of the electron and the more obvious the temperature rise of the atomic object. We can also confirm from the experiment that there must be a large enough space environment without atomic objects, in which a small amount of temperature measuring atoms are put and irradiated with high-intensity visible light that filters out infrared rays. The author predicts that the temperature of temperature measuring atoms before and after visible light irradiation must be unequal, and the temperature after irradiation must rise!
So why is the thermal effect of infrared light wave the most obvious among all light waves? In fact, the reason is quite simple, but the frequency of infrared light waves is closest to the movement frequency of the outermost electrons outside the nucleus. When the outermost electrons outside the nucleus move in the infrared light wave environment, they are most likely to vibrate, and the time imbalance of neutron velocity in the environment is most likely to be converted into kinetic energy of electron movement, which increases the movement rate of electrons.
Conductor for heat conduction and heat dissipation
Temperature is a reflection of the intensity of random motion of a large number of molecules (atoms), which is the viewpoint of classical physics. This view is applicable not only to explain temperature, but also to explain heat conduction. On the surface, "the intensity of random motion" is applied, but it is completely different-when explaining temperature, "the intensity of random motion" describes the motion of molecules (atoms); When explaining heat conduction, "the intensity of random motion" describes the motion of electrons. So, temperature is a reflection of the irregular motion intensity of a large number of molecules (atoms) or a large number of electrons? Or is it a reflection of the irregular motion intensity of a large number of microscopic particles? Is the subject of random motion described by temperature atoms, molecules, electrons or other microscopic particles? Which kind of microscopic particles' random motion intensity can better reflect the temperature? So the concept of temperature in classical physics must be wrong.
It is this kind of mistake that the author saw that formed the concept of heat conduction in articles such as Dark Matter Tracking (VI). In these papers, the author thinks that no matter what the state of any atom or these objects is, the electrons outside the nucleus can't leave the virtual environment space of the nucleus, and the space outside the virtual environment of the nucleus forms the so-called free electrons in classical physics, and the electrons inside the nucleus all move around the nucleus. In other words, the author's view is that there can be no real free electrons in any object! In these papers, the author thinks that the reason of heat conduction is the movement of extranuclear electrons of adjacent atoms. In this paper, the author's point of view has been further changed. The reason of heat conduction is not the extranuclear electron movement of adjacent atoms!
Except for the imaginary part of atoms, the atoms that make up an object are still moving around the nucleus, and they are not entangled with each other, let alone free electrons! The real cause of heat conduction is also thermal radiation! We know that electrons outside the nucleus constantly excite neutrons in the process of moving around the nucleus, producing neutron fluctuations-light waves-which is thermal radiation! Because "heat" is the time imbalance of particle velocity in meson, there must be "heat" when there is light propagation.
The so-called "heat conduction" means that heat is transferred from the high temperature part to the low temperature part along the object. In practice, the high-temperature part of an object must be close to the heat source, and an object usually refers to an object composed of atoms. When one end of an object is close to the heat source, the heat source emits high-intensity neutron fluctuations (light waves), so that all the atoms of this part of the object are in the neutron fluctuation environment, and the extranuclear electrons move in the time imbalance environment of neutron velocity. The neutron fluctuation frequency emitted by the heat source is usually low, and there may be more infrared light waves. The frequency of these fluctuations is close to the frequency of electrons in the outer layer of atoms of objects, which is easy to make electrons vibrate and change their speed or frequency, resulting in an increase in temperature. That is, atoms close to the heat source heat up first.
These atoms close to the heat source, they not only absorb "heat" to make their temperature rise continuously, but also absorb "heat" and at the same time, their extranuclear electrons constantly excite neutrons to produce neutron fluctuations. Neutron fluctuations produced by atoms of an object spread in all directions. Because the fluctuation intensity produced by atoms of an object is less than or even much less than the neutron fluctuation intensity of a heat source, the direction of heat propagation must be from the heat source to the object; In the space outside the object, there are neutron fluctuations produced by the heat source, and there are also neutron fluctuations produced by the atoms of the object being "heated" by the heat source. If there are no other atoms in these spaces, these neutron fluctuations will propagate to infinity. If there are other atoms in these spaces, these atoms will move in their properties and cause the temperature to rise. In the internal space of an object, the neutron fluctuation generated by a heat source is blocked (absorbed and reflected) by atoms on the surface or near the heat source, so most internal atoms cannot move directly in the neutron fluctuation environment generated by the heat source, so the heat source cannot directly raise the temperature of most object atoms. Nevertheless, atoms close to the heat source after heating constantly produce neutron fluctuations. These fluctuations not only propagate in the direction of the heat source and the object, but also in the atoms inside the object, thus forming the spontaneous propagation of "heat" from the high temperature part of the object to the low temperature part. The propagation process of "heat" is also the process of atomic temperature rising in neutral fluctuation environment.
The author's view on heat conduction denies the view that a large number of "free electrons" collide with each other in a random motion in classical physics, and of course denies the reasons for the formation of mixed thermal conductors. The author insists that there are no so-called "free electrons" in any object, and all electrons in the object are not free. These electrons always move around the nucleus with their proper environmental properties. Without the constraint of the virtual environment of the nucleus, they cannot form "free electrons" unless there is a stronger environment outside the atom to form a big environment inside the object. In this case, some outer electrons of the atom of an object may leave the small environment of the nucleus with the help of the big environment, so that without free electrons inside an object, it is impossible to do irregular motion and collide in the movement.
As for the formation of thermal good conductor and bad conductor, it is still related to the movement frequency of electrons outside the nucleus. In the above discussion, it is always inseparable from the * * * vibration and heat absorption of extranuclear electrons-the closer the nuclear frequency of extranuclear electrons is to the neutron fluctuation frequency, the faster the electron movement rate increases and the faster the temperature rises. In view of this point, the author predicts that the nuclear frequency of the outermost electrons in a simple metal nucleus is low and that of a simple nonmetal nucleus is high, but no matter which element, the nuclear frequency of the outermost electrons in its nucleus must be greater than that of infrared light waves. That is. This is the reason why good and bad conductors of heat are formed.
In the metal close to the heat source, the electrons absorb heat obviously because of the lower movement frequency of the outermost electrons of the atom, which is close to the infrared light wave frequency of the heat source. After heat absorption, the frequency of electron movement is lower, which is closer to or even equal to the frequency of infrared light, and the heat absorption effect is more obvious, thus forming a virtuous circle of heat absorption. At the same time, these endothermic atoms constantly excite neutron fluctuations with the same frequency as their electrons, and these neutron fluctuations propagate to the low temperature part, and the atoms in the low temperature part absorb heat and heat in the same way. Metal is a good conductor of heat because the movement frequency of electrons outside the metal core is close to the infrared frequency, which makes the atom absorb heat and heat up quite quickly, and the conduction is also quite fast.
For non-metallic atoms, because the outermost electrons of atoms have a high frequency of motion, they are far away from infrared frequencies. Therefore, the non-metallic electrons outside the nucleus near the heat source absorb heat slowly and heat slowly in the low-frequency neutron fluctuation of the heat source, and the neutron fluctuation intensity excited by these heated atoms is also very weak, and the temperature rise of other non-metallic atoms far away from the heat source is even smaller in the weak neutron fluctuation. Therefore, nonmetals are poor conductors of heat.
No matter what atoms an object is made of, neutron fluctuation-when light waves hit the atomic surface of an object, the density of neutrons in space changes greatly, so on the one hand, light waves will be reflected, on the other hand, they will be absorbed by the atomic surface of the object, and the temperature will rise. Therefore, the more obvious the temperature rise, the weaker the reflection, and the weaker the temperature rise, the stronger the reflection. Moreover, due to the movement frequency of electrons outside the nucleus, the natural phenomena of strong reflection of visible light by metal objects and strong absorption of visible light by non-metal objects are formed.
5 the level of space temperature
In "On the Temperature of Vacuum" and other articles, the author points out that the temperature in space depends on the intensity of neutron fluctuation in space. But there is a very interesting question: the radiation intensity of solar heat source to neutron fluctuation is the same as that of the earth and other places, but why is the temperature of the earth much higher than that of other places? Is it correct to say that temperature depends on the intensity of spatial fluctuations?
To solve these problems, we must first analyze the structure of the earth and its material composition. As we all know, there is an atmosphere in the space tens of kilometers high near the earth's surface, and the author calls this atmosphere the imaginary part of the earth's moving entity (in fact, the imaginary part of the earth's moving entity is far more than this, it should include all the spatial areas in the earth's gravity field). We also know that the gas density in this atmosphere is increasing from top to bottom, and the gas density gradient is quite small. Although the neutron density on the earth's surface decreases from top to bottom, due to the influence of atmospheric density distribution, the neutron density gradient on the earth's surface tends to zero, even forming an increasing neutron distribution from top to bottom. That is to say, when sunlight-neutron fluctuation enters the atmosphere from outer space, the reflection caused by neutron density gradient is quite small, and most of it can enter the atmosphere smoothly. Both visible light and infrared light can enter the atmosphere smoothly. Once light waves enter the atmosphere, it is more difficult to re-emerge from the atmosphere through the reflection of atmospheric molecules.
In addition, the elements that make up the atmosphere are basically nonmetallic elements, and the atoms of these elements have strong absorption ability to visible light, which transforms the imbalance of neutron fluctuation in visible light into the kinetic energy of electrons, thus raising the temperature of the atmosphere, and these atoms effectively reflect the infrared light waveform, making the neutron fluctuation intensity in the surface space of the earth much higher than that in the outer space in the earth orbit. This is why the temperature on the earth's surface is much higher than that in the outer space of the earth's orbit.
In fact, the cotton-padded clothes we use to keep warm are all based on the effective reflection of infrared light waves by non-metallic atomic objects, which increases the intensity of neutron fluctuation in local space, especially the principle of infrared fluctuation.
At the end of the article, the author needs to point out that our modern industrial production emits a lot of carbon dioxide, which makes the density of free molecules at the bottom of the atmosphere increase year by year, forming a more effective reflection of infrared fluctuations at the bottom of the atmosphere, so the atmospheric temperature rises year by year, and finally a rare phenomenon of warm winter in history has appeared in recent years.
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