The backcutting method is a traditional phonetic notation method in China, that is, two Chinese characters are combined into one Chinese phonetic notation.
Because the ancients didn't have pinyin characters, the basic principle of backcutting is that the initial consonant of the upper word is the same as that of the incised word, the vowel (including the middle sound) and tone of the lower word are the same as that of the incised word, and the upper and lower combination is the pronunciation of the incised word.
There are three main differences between Fanqie and Pinyin:
① Pinyin uses one or several phoneme symbols to represent the actual sound values of initials and finals, while each Chinese character used for backcutting represents a syllable. There are no Chinese characters that simply represent consonants, only a few Chinese characters that start with vowels. Therefore, the upper word representing the initial consonant is inseparable without the vowel, and the lower word representing the vowel often has the initial consonant. In this way, the upper and lower words representing initials and finals contain redundant components, which must be removed when splicing-the initials of the upper word and the initials of the lower word. The principles of backcutting should be: backcutting only takes its initials, regardless of its finals and tones; Only the vowels and tones of a word are taken, regardless of its initials.
② An initial or a vowel in an ideal pinyin word can only be represented by a fixed letter or a group of letters, and it is never allowed to be changed at will; The choice of upper and lower words is flexible. If any word with the same initial and vowel is used as the upper and lower words, the actual pronunciation of the cut word will not change. For example, Lonely, Guhu Car. If the words "Guo", "Gu" and "Gong" are used instead of "Gu", and the words "Hu", "Wu" and "Du" are used instead of "Hu", the pronunciation of the incised characters will not change. This is because the initials of the former are all [k], and the finals of the latter are all [u]. In principle, it is enough to express the same initial or vowel with one word. If it is stipulated that only one word is used, then the word itself cannot be annotated, so at least two words should be used for the same initial or vowel, which is far more than two in practical application. In Guang Yun, the same initial has at most 17 upper words, and the lower words of the same initial are basically the same.
③ In addition to double spelling, modern Chinese Pinyin also includes triple spelling and quadruple spelling. From the writing form, a syllable can be represented by 1 ~ 4 phoneme letters; Backcutting can only be spelled twice, and only two words are allowed. Even if it is a zero initial, there must be a reverse cut on the word. For example, in Mandarin, "Love, Udaiqie" and the word "Ai" are zero initials. If it is pinyin, the initials need not be expressed. In the anti-tangent phonetic notation, a word "Wu" must be used to represent the zero initial in order to carry out anti-tangent phonetic notation. Even a vowel with a beginning and an end can only use the whole word as backstroke. For example, "persuade, go, and be willing to cut." The vowel of the segmented word "advised" is Luan, which contains three phonemes. The anti-tangent phonetic notation only uses the same "wish" as the vowel of "advise" as the anti-tangent character.
It is easy to learn and master the reverse tangent when it first comes into being. At that time, ordinary people could not only read words with reverse tangent, but also play charades and say code words with reverse tangent. Later, Fanqie became difficult to understand, and even some scholars often couldn't understand it. This is because pronunciation is constantly developing and changing, and it is natural to read ancient artificial anticline with contemporary pronunciation. For example, from the Middle Ages to modern times, the initials and finals of Chinese have changed greatly. This is the fundamental reason why it is inconvenient for modern people to use the medieval anti-tangent. The tone change has a great influence on the anti-tangent principle, but there are generally rules to follow. Give a few examples in the next interview.
A basic requirement of backcutting is that the tone of word cutting is the same as that of word cutting. The next word is flat, and the cut word is also read flat. But today's pronunciation is divided into yin and yang. If the cutting is flat, it is determined by the words above. This is because there was no distinction between yin and yang in the Middle Ages, and now the sound of yin and yang has changed from the turbidity in the Middle Ages. In the Middle Ages, the initial consonant of Qing Dynasty belonged to Yin, and the initial consonant of voiced Dynasty belonged to Yang. For example: "Publishing is bitter and cold." The word "cold" below is a positive word, but the word "publication" is cut off and read as a negative word, because the word "bitter" above is a middle ancient Qing initial. Another example is: "The altar is only dry cut." The word "gan" below is, but the word "tan" is pronounced as Yang Ping, because the word "tu" above is the middle ancient full-voiced initial.
② The second basic requirement of backcutting is that the initials of the cut word are the same as those of the backcut word. But there is a kind of anti-tangency, which is inconsistent with the inhalation and non-inhalation of words and anti-tangency. This is because the voiced initials in the Middle Ages have become two unvoiced initials in today's Mandarin: aspirated unvoiced initials and flat voiced unvoiced initials. When the upper word is a full voiced initial, the lower word is a flat voiced initial, and the cutting word is an aspirated voiceless initial; The next word is Xu Sheng, and the initial consonant of the current word is not aspirated. For example: "power, great people cut." The word "ju" can't send the initial consonant, but the word "quan" can send the initial consonant. This is because the word "Yuan" below is a flat voiced word in the Middle Ages, and the word "Ju" above belongs to a voiced initial in the Middle Ages. Another example is: "Degree, just cut." On the word "Tu", you can read aspirated initials today, and on the word "Du", you can't read aspirated initials today. This is because the word "Gu" below is a disyllabic word, and the word "Tu" above belongs to the middle ancient full-voiced initials.
(3) According to today's pronunciation, some backcutting initials in the Middle Ages are [], [], [], while backcutting initials are [k], [k'], [x] or [].] The first letter of the cut word is inconsistent with the first letter of the reverse cut word. This is because in the middle ages [k], [K'], [x] and [E], [E'] and [s], each group had some words [E] and [E] that became modern sounds. The condition of differentiation lies in the presence or absence of [y] intermediate sound (or main vowel, the same below). The original consonant of any Yin scarlet letter without [y] middle tone remains unchanged; In all the voiced words with [y] as the middle sound, the first consonant becomes [duck], [duck] and [duck]. For example:
Crimson Gu Xiang scissors [against the enemy ]-[ku]+[ against the enemy].
←— [k' u]+[←↑↑↑i ε n]
Filial Piety Calls for Teaching [??International Astronomical Union] ←— [Xu]+[I University]
Fresh-cut sauce ←— []+[Li ↑ [[Photo: yywzbk72-0 1.jpg]]
The Qinghai-Tibet Sutra cuts off ←-[嫋嫋嫋]+[嫋嫋]
Xiao Su was suspended and suspended. In the above six situations, read [慦慦] [慦 u] today, and read [慦] [慦慦] [慦] today, and read [k] [k'] today in reverse. Of course, there are also the opposite situations, such as:
Introducing Wei Che [Gui] ↓-[Y]+[Wei]
Kuang Qu Wang Qie Ge] ←— [ó y]+[w ó]
Eliminate Xu Wei [xuei] ←-[ Yanyan y]+[ Wei]
Official cutting by drilling and borrowing [uan]←—[ IE]+[kuan]
Jump around seven times ["uan"] ←— ["I"+[Luan]]
Saixian County Daiqie [Sai] Jingwuhu n]+[ Tai]
There are ten or twenty similar laws of change, but it still cannot cover all the exceptions.
Sound. The first word (upside down) is marked with initials, and the second word (upside down) is marked with finals. Like wine cutting. The initial is a pure vowel and the vowel is a rhyme, so alcohol sounds like a vowel. Because the pronunciation of the Tang Dynasty was different from that of modern times, it was impossible for Mandarin at that time to pronounce anti-syncopation.
Anti-tangency in Sui and Tang Dynasties is the basic data for studying the phonetic system of Middle Ancient Chinese, and it is also the Chinese phonology. Generally speaking, there are three different understandings of the tangent term itself:
(1) ambiguous explanation. In the Book of Rites (1037) edited by Ding Du and others in the Song Dynasty, it is said: "The development and change of phonology is called anti, which is also called anti; The two words rub and make a sound. " This statement seems to think that "anti" refers to the combination of upper and lower characters and word cutting, and "cutting" refers to the combination process of upper and lower characters. At the turn of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, Huang Gongshao and Xiong Zhong's Collection of Ancient and Modern Rhymes (1297) said: "One voice is negative, one voice is negative, and the child calls the mother, and the mother calls the child." This seems to be saying that backcutting is called backcutting, and backcutting is called cutting. But it's not clear.
(2) "anti" and "cut" are synonyms, both of which mean combination. In Qing Dynasty, Gu's Five Books of Phonology said: "The name of anti-cutting was called anti-cutting since the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and Sun Yu called it" cutting ",which was taboo at that time ... The preface to the Nine Classics of Tang Dynasty said:" Don't use irony, but use four tones to set its tone. "It is said in the volume that under the word" cover ",the cloud pollution turns over, not over, but under the word" cover ",the cloud level indicates the button, not over. If it is, turn it upside down, turn it over, a new one. Gu thinks that "reverse" means "cut" and "cut" means "reverse", and some people make "turn" and "buckle". However, his views of "anti-criticism" in the Southern and Northern Dynasties and "cutting" after the Tang Dynasty are not exact. The antithesis reserved in Sun Yan's Er Ya Yi Yin is indeed upside down, but it was also said before the Sui and Tang Dynasties. Yan Zhitui (53 1 ~? Yan's Family Instructions Yin Ci says: "Xu Xianmin (344 ~ 397) turned Mao into Li, while Zuo Chuanyin became a disciple" and "Hebei attacked Gu Cong". Strict "anti" and "cut" are used together.
(3) From the analysis of the word "Qieyun", it is considered that the upper word is called "Qie" and the lower word is called "Yun". Lu Fayan of Sui Dynasty criticized his predecessors in the preface to cutting rhyme: "Take fattening fish as rhyme;" The first immortal is especially Hou, and they all talk about cutting. " That is to say, the word is mistaken for the same kind, and the word is mistaken for the same kind, which Lu calls "rhyme"; "Sages" reversed different types of dictionaries, "Houyou" reversed different types of dictionaries (Zeng Yungan said), which Lu called "Qie". In Song Dynasty, Shen Kuo (1029 ~ 1093) said in Volume 15 of Meng Qian's Bi Tan: "The so-called rhyming person, the upper word is cut, and the lower word is rhyme." Han Daozhao's "Preface to the Rhyme of Five Tones" in Jin Dynasty said: "Those who write" Qieyun "cut off the rhyme on it, and then combine it to get the name." Shen and Han made it very clear. Various statements are inconsistent and need further study.
Scholars have different opinions about the origin of anti-tangent. There are mainly the following three views.
(1) Fanqie is believed to have been created by Wei of the Three Kingdoms. It is based on the words in Yan Jiaxun's Quotation: "It is a unique irony in the late Han Dynasty that Sun Zao Er Ya. As for Wei, this matter is very popular. " After careful consideration of Yan's words, I only said that the book Chuangerya used anti-tangent phonetic notation, but did not say that it was the first anti-tangent method. It seems that people may have a one-sided understanding of Yan's words
(2) It is believed that when Chinese characters are produced, there is an anti-tangent. Liu Xizai in Qing dynasty (1813 ~1881) said in "preface to speech": "syncopation ... starts with writing. Xu's Shuowen is attached to the words, which makes it miserable. What is more difficult to understand in Fu Liu's books is nothing more than homophonic. Xu's theory of form and sound refers to the word "river", while Xu's has never been called "double rhyme" However, Jiang can be called "double rhyme" and Jiang Gong is called "double tone", which is actually true. " A similar view is the chorus theory. Shen Kuo in the Song Dynasty and Gu in the Ming and Qing Dynasties also held this view. Gu's Five Classics Rhyme says: "Dui Dui has existed since the Han Dynasty. Shen Kuo in the Song Dynasty said that the two sounds of the old saying have been combined into one word. If it is uncomfortable, why not ... Zheng Qiao said that slow sound is two, urgent sound is one, what is slow sound, urgent sound, slow sound, urgent sound, urgent sound, urgent sound, urgent sound ... The classic content of "Stupid Taste Test" is more than these. For example, "There are words on the wall", words, tribulus terrestris, tangent words of tribulus terrestris ... "Pictophonetic words or homophonic words are neither the beginning nor the reverse tangent. The fundamental difference between them and backcutting is that backcutting is to consciously analyze the initials and finals of a syllable, which stipulates the backcutting of upper and lower words; In the era when pictophonetic characters were produced in large numbers (Zhou Qin), it was impossible to analyze the phonology of Chinese characters; Synonym is a problem of fast reading and slow reading. Therefore, they are unconscious or accidental, which is essentially different from the purpose of phonetic notation.
(3) It is considered that the anti-tangent originated in the post-Han Dynasty when Qian was assigned and Ying Shao was in the era. Zhang Hewu (1884 ~ 1939) demonstrated this. Zhang thinks: "The satire of Han Shu has been written in the article, which was obviously created at the end of the Han Dynasty, and it is not an uncle's idea. Besides, Prince Yong and Sun both said that the classics were like enemies, and Zi Yong also used irony, which he didn't know from the beginning. " (quoted from Huang Kan's "Rhyme") Wu's "Preface to the Interpretation of Literature Classics" said: "Looking for Yan Shigu's annotation of Hanshu, I am convinced and sincere, and Ying Shao satirizes it, no less than a dozen things. Fu Qian and Ying Shao both died in Jian 'an, at the same time as Zheng Xuan. It is an irony that has been done at the end of the Han Dynasty, which is generally consistent with what Yan said. It is almost untrue to say that it was created from my uncle. "These views make more sense. First of all, it is a fact that the annotations in Hanshu contain the opposition between filial piety and welcoming young people. Secondly, Wang Su's and Sun Yan's academic thoughts and viewpoints are diametrically opposite. Wang Su has been attacking Sun Yan's teacher Zheng Xuan. If Sun Yan created the anti-tangent, Wang Su also used the anti-tangent, which is equivalent to giving people a handle and candidly admit defeat. This is impossible; Thirdly, Fu Qian and Ying Shao were both from the end of the Han Dynasty, which is consistent with what Yan Zhitui said: "People in the end of the Han Dynasty only knew irony".
The emergence of anti-tangent is to make up for the shortcomings of the phonetic notation methods of reading if and direct tone. Compared with reading if and direct tone, arc tangent is undoubtedly a great progress. From the perspective of phonology history, the appearance of anti-tangent marks the beginning of phonetics of Han nationality-from then on, I learned to analyze Chinese syllables from the perspective of phonology and divide a syllable into two parts: sound and rhyme.
Anti-tangent phonetic notation has great limitations on the improvement of anti-tangent. This is manifested in three aspects: ① Both upper and lower characters contain redundant elements, which has certain obstacles in combination; (2) There are too many characters that can be reversed, which is difficult for users to master; (3) Some rhymes are narrow, so we have to occasionally borrow words from other rhymes to intercept words, resulting in inaccurate syncopation.
It is precisely because of such serious defects in the early anti-tangent that future generations have continuously improved the anti-tangent from all aspects. Representative views are reflected in the following books:
Lv Kun's Jiao Tai Yun in Ming Dynasty and Pan Lei's Lei Yin in Qing Dynasty. These two books are determined to get rid of the disadvantages of the old anti-tangent, and the basic starting point of designing anti-tangent is to make the two words read together as much as possible to spell out the pronunciation. Their improvements can be summarized as follows: ① Chinese character backcutting not only considers the same tone buttons as the cut characters, but also considers the equal calling correspondence. The cut word is Yin scarlet letter, and the upper word is Yin scarlet letter; The cutting word is a fine-sounding word, and the upper word is a fine-sounding word; Cutting is an opening, and the upper word is an opening; Word cutting is a word cutting, and the upper word is a word cutting. ② Try to use words without consonants. (3) Not all words with the same tone as the word being cut are used for backcutting. On this issue, the practices of Lv Kun and Pan Lei are not completely consistent. Lv Kun advocates cutting flat, cutting flat, and cutting above is broken; Pan Lei advocated to level off, to level off. (4) The word cutting is flat and turbid, and the reverse word cutting takes care of the classification of yin and yang, and the word cutting is flat and the next word is flat; The cut word is flat, and so is the next word. This is because at that time, the flat tones of northern dialects and most dialects had been divided into yin and yang. ⑤ Reduce and unify the characters in backcutting as much as possible to reduce the burden on users. Although this improvement has brought great convenience to people, it has also brought new disadvantages. You must use the words beginning with vowels to cut words, but there are few words beginning with homophonic vowels, so it is necessary to find some uncommon words to cut words. If we regard the words that are difficult to recognize as common words, we will lose the function of phonetic notation.
In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Yang's phonological collection. This book was written by 1659. It has been written in Ru Ping's Second Tune, but not in Confucianism's Second Tune. Now, it is a part of Ruping tone and ru tone. There are two main points in his improvement: ① reducing the number of words in backcutting. Yang classified all the rhymes into 25 categories, which he called 《 Set the number of sound buttons to 3 1, which is called "children". Each rhyme is divided into three categories: macro, meso and fine. "Macro" is equivalent to the ending sound. 15 is determined as the upper word and 13 as the lower word in the rhyme of Macro. "Zhong" is equivalent to the opening sound. In the rhyme of Zhong, the word 2 1 is determined as the upper word and the word 24 as the lower word. "Fine" is equivalent to opening and closing fine sound words. In the rhyme of Xi, the character 3 1 is determined as the upper word and the character 24 as the lower word. The total number of upper and lower words in Macro, Medium and Fine is 124, which is less than112 of the total number of upper and lower words in Guang Yun. (2) Try to choose the word "innuendo" without initials as the backcutting word. Some rhymes don't have the word "shadow metaphor", so we have to choose the word "Xiao Xia" and other new words. Yang's improvement has made some achievements, but there are also some shortcomings. Because there are too few words in reverse order, sometimes we have to adopt the method of "borrowing". The book repeatedly says "borrow", "beg" and even "encourage".
Li Guangdi and Wang Lansheng's Yin Shi and Liu Xizai's Si Sheng Ding Qie in Qing Dynasty. These two books were completed in 1726 and 1878 respectively. Inspired by the twelve-character prefix of Manchu, the author of Yinyun Zhuanwei absorbed all the advantages of improvement and anti-cutting, such as Jiaotaiyun and Lei Yin. On the other hand, the "four-tone decision" is based on the "phonological interpretation", which is more accurate and rigorous than it. The improved backcutting of these two books has reached the best state, but there are still some limitations. For example, for vowels [Huan] and [Huan], there are no words starting with vowels available, and only words with consonants can be used for backcutting, so there is still a phenomenon that they are not in place in the process of splicing.
The above schools have made various improvements to the anti-cutting, but they have never reached the ideal situation. Only by analyzing various phonemes with a set of symbols can this contradiction be solved.
philology
Gu: Five Books on Phonology, photocopied by Zhonghua Book Company, Beijing, 1982.
Chen Li: Examination of Qieyun, Volume VI, photocopied by China Bookstore, Beijing, 1984.