Gestalt school's viewpoint directly influenced the formation and development of cognitive learning theory today. The representatives of Gestalt School are Kaufka, Wittmer, Kohler, etc. According to this school, the essence of learning is to construct and organize a gestalt, not to form a connection between stimulus and response.

▲ Vitmo

The principle of Gestalt psychology is applied to the research of human creative thinking, and the importance of cultivating students' creative thinking in the process of education is advocated.

Biography

Wortmann was born in Prague. He first studied in the Law Department of Charles University. 190 1 transferred to Berlin University to study philosophy and psychology, and studied under Stourm. 1904 transferred to the University of Wü rzburg, where he received his doctorate under the guidance of Kulpe. After 19 10, he taught at Frankfurt University and Berlin University successively. From 19 1 1 year, the experimental research on sports vision has been carried out, and great achievements have been made. 1933 fled to the United States because of Nazi persecution, and worked as a part-time professor at the Institute of New Society in new york. His main works are: Creative Thinking (1982, 1959, 1945) (translated by Lin Zongji in Chinese, 1987), Textual Research on Gestalt Psychology (1967).

▲ Kohler

Epiphany theory explains the process of learning and the phenomenon of learning transfer, which has a far-reaching impact on the later cognitive learning theory.

Classical experiment

According to the basic viewpoint of gestalt psychology, Kohler put forward this viewpoint based on the problem-solving experiment of gorillas. Kohler designed a famous experiment to prove his point. According to this experiment, Kohler believes that before solving this problem, chimpanzees' perception of the present situation is vague and confusing. When it saw the relationship between a few short sticks and bananas on high, it had an epiphany and solved the problem. So learning is achieved through epiphany. Epiphany is the organizational construction process of gestalt. Learning is the reorganization of perception. This process of perceptual experience change is not a gradual process of trial and error correction, but an epiphany.

▲ Kaufka

Biography

Kurt Kaufka (1886 ~1941)1March 19861886 was born in Berlin, Germany. 1903 entered the university of Edinburgh for education, 1904 began to study philosophy and psychology at the university of Berlin, and 1909 obtained a doctorate in philosophy under the guidance of C. Stumpf. 19 10 went to Frankfurt university to study sports phenomena with Vitmer and Kohler, which laid the foundation of gestalt psychology. From 19 1 1 to 1924, he has been teaching at Giessen University. 1924, went to Main, and served as a visiting professor at Cornell University, University of Chicago and Star University of Wisconsin. 1927 was employed as a professor of science at Smith College in the United States, and died in 194 1.

As the main disseminator of Gestalt Psychology, Kaufka first introduced Gestalt Psychology to American psychologists and was the most prolific author of Berlin School, which played an important role in the popularization of Gestalt Psychology. The main representative works are: The Growth of M 1nd (German version 192 1 year, English version 1924) and Principles of Gestalt Psychology (1924). The latter is regarded as "the only attempt to describe the gestalt comprehensively and systematically" (Porter, 198 1 year).

Classical experiment

1. Similar motion phenomenon

Motion-like phenomenon refers to the appearance of two visual stimuli that are not far apart. If the time interval is between110 seconds and 1/30 seconds, then what we see is not two objects, but an object moving.

2. Whole and part

A classic example is the alternating graphics of graphics and backgrounds.

3. Epiphany experiment

1) "connecting rod problem" experiment

2) "Stacking Box Problem" experiment

Perceptual law or learning law of gestalt psychology

Learning is the reorganization of perception, so perception and learning are almost synonymous. One of the most basic perceptual laws he put forward is the law of tolerance (1aw of pragnanz). In other words, people have a tendency to present perceived things in the best form-gestalt as much as possible. If a person's perception field is disturbed, he will immediately form a perception field again, so that there is still a good form of what is perceived. It should be noted that this "perfect form" does not mean "the best form", but means having a kind of "integrity". This process, that is, the process of perceptual reorganization mentioned above. In this process, there are five perceptual laws:

1. Proximity Law (Proximity of 1aw)

People's perception of objects in the perceptual field is combined according to the degree of their parts approaching or adjacent to each other. The closer the parts are, the greater the possibility of combination.

2. Similarity law (similarity of 1aw)

When people perceive, they tend to combine items with similar stimulus elements, as long as they are not interfered by neighboring factors. In other words, similar parts will form several groups in perception.

3. Law of Closure (Closure of 1aw)

Closing refers to the action (gestalt) of completing a certain figure.

4. The law of continuity (1aw continuity)

In the process of perception, people tend to keep the straight line of the perceived object as a straight line and the curve as a curve.

5. Law of member characteristics (1aw of member characteristics)

Gestalt psychologists believe that each part of a whole has no fixed characteristics, and the characteristics of each part are revealed from its relationship with other parts.

Six basic viewpoints of gestalt learning theory

1. Learning is perceptual reorganization or cognitive reorganization.

Gestalt psychologists tend to explain learning in perceptual terms. Learning means being aware of the key elements in a specific situation, understanding how these elements are related, and identifying the internal structure. Therefore, learning is almost synonymous with perception and cognition. By studying, you will leave traces of memories in your mind, which are left in the nervous system because of experience. However, gestalt psychology believes that these traces are not isolated elements, but an organized whole, that is, gestalt.

2. Epiphany learning can avoid unnecessary trial and error and help transfer.

Gestalt psychologists believe that solving problems through an epiphany on the internal nature of problem situations can avoid a lot of random and blind actions unrelated to the problem situations, which is conducive to transferring learning to new problem situations. Vitmer distinguished two types of problem solving methods: one is the only original and epiphany solution; The other is the method of inappropriately applying old rules, so it can't really solve the problem. The core of insight learning is to grasp the essence of things, not trivial details.

Real learning will not be forgotten.

The understanding gained through epiphany is not only helpful for migration, but also not easy to forget. Epiphany will become a permanent part of our knowledge and skills. In terms of modern cognitive information processing psychology, the content of epiphany is that long-term memory will remain in learners' minds forever.

4. Dunn's study itself has the nature of reward.

Real learning is often accompanied by a sense of excitement. Learners learn meaningful relationships, understand the internal structure of a gestalt, and discover the truth of things, which will be accompanied by pleasant experiences. This is one of the most positive experiences that human beings can have. When there is no other incentive and motivation, when we can't understand learning in an epiphany way, we might as well use some external rewards. Generally speaking, reaching the level of understanding itself has the function of self-reward.

5. Criticism of epiphany theory and trial-and-error theory

Learning is an intelligent behavior, an epiphany process, which requires the participation of cognitive activities such as understanding, comprehension and thinking, and is a process of sudden appearance, rapid change and leap. Epiphany learning has its own characteristics, which can be summarized as follows: before the problem is solved, there is still a period of confusion or calm, indecision and long pause; The transition from before problem solving to problem solving is not a gradual process, but a sudden qualitative change process; In the problem-solving stage, behavior operation is a smooth and uninterrupted process, forming a continuous whole, with few wrong behaviors; The method of solving problems obtained by epiphany can be kept in memory for a long time; Epiphany and mastery of learning principles are conducive to adapting to new situations and solving new problems.

Gestalt school's epiphany theory and Thorndike's trial and error theory are diametrically opposed.

6. Creative thinking

Vitmer made a systematic study of thinking. He applied the principle of epiphany learning to the discussion of human creative thinking, and proposed that this kind of thinking should be carried out by grasping the whole problem. It is believed that in order to solve problems creatively, the whole must dominate the part. Even when it is necessary to pay attention to the details of the problem, we must never ignore the whole problem. The details must be placed in the whole problem and considered in connection with the overall structure. This is a top-down thinking, from the whole to the part. He believes that if people want to solve the problem smoothly, they must present the overall situation of the problem, so that they can have a complete overview of the problem, and they must never deliberately hide the methods and ways to solve the problem like Thorndike, forcing the subjects to try and make mistakes blindly.

Strongly oppose the method of rote learning and mechanical training in the field of education caused by trial and error theory and conditioned reflex theory. It is pointed out that the primary task of teachers in teaching is to help students understand the problem situation, so that students can understand how to solve the problem and why, and strive to have an epiphany on the premise of understanding and understanding the problem. It is believed that learning is expensive to break the shackles of old knowledge and patterns, and strive to have an epiphany on the basis of problem areas, master the principle of solving problems, and draw inferences from others to promote the improvement of intelligence.

Modern cognitive learning theory

▲ Bruner

Cognitive discovery theory

First of all, Bruner emphasized that the learning process is a positive cognitive process. He believes that the essence of learning lies in actively forming cognitive structure. Learning any subject involves a series of new knowledge, and each knowledge has to go through three cognitive learning processes: acquisition, transformation and evaluation. Bruner once pointed out that learning a subject seems to involve three almost simultaneous processes. At the same time, he stressed: No matter what subject we choose to teach, we should let students understand the basic structure of the subject.

Secondly, he attaches great importance to people's initiative and the role of their own experience, attaches importance to the intrinsic motivation of learning and develops students' thinking, and advocates knowledge discovery learning. He said: discovery is not limited to the act of seeking things that human beings do not know yet. Correctly speaking, discovery includes all forms or methods of acquiring knowledge with one's own mind. He believes that discovery learning has the following advantages: (1) is conducive to stimulating students' potential; (2) It helps to enhance students' intrinsic learning motivation; (3) helping students learn to learn; (4) It is beneficial to the retention and extraction of knowledge.

▲ Ausubel

Cognitive assimilation theory

A unique meaningful learning theory, namely cognitive assimilation theory (also known as cognition-acceptance), is put forward. The learning of new knowledge must be based on the existing cognitive structure. The process of learning new knowledge is a dynamic process in which learners actively extract the old knowledge that is most relevant to new knowledge from their existing cognitive structure, and fix or belong to it. The result of the process leads to the continuous differentiation and integration of the original cognitive structure, which enables learners to acquire new knowledge or clear and stable conscious experience, and the original knowledge has also changed in the process of assimilation.

According to the relationship between the new content to be learned and the related content that learners already know, Ausubel divides learning into three categories: lower learning, upper learning and parallel learning.

(1) If the new content to be learned is lower than the existing related content in the learner's original cognitive structure, then learning is subordinate learning or generic learning. For example, when students study squares, rectangles and triangles (existing knowledge), they have formed the concept of axisymmetric graphics, so when learning circles, the proposition that "circles are also axisymmetric graphics" (new knowledge) is subordinate learning.

⑵ If the new content to be learned is higher than the existing related content in the learner's original cognitive structure at the level of encirclement and generalization, then learning is upper learning or blanket learning. For example, when students already have the concepts of square, rectangle and triangle in the original cognitive structure, what happens is epistatic learning.

(3) If the new content to be learned is only a reasonable combination of the existing related contents in the original cognitive structure, then it can only be related to the general background of the related contents in the cognitive structure, and cannot form a subordinate relationship (subordinate relationship) or a superior relationship (general relationship) with some specific contents in the cognitive structure, then learning at this time is parallel combined learning. Most concepts that students learn in mathematics, natural science, social science and humanities are examples of parallel learning. In parallel and combined learning, it is difficult to learn and remember new content, because only the general and non-specific related content in the original cognitive structure can be used for fixation.

According to the way students learn, students' learning can be divided into acceptance learning and discovery learning; According to the nature of the learning process, learning can be divided into mechanical learning and meaningful learning.

(1) Accept learning, that is, learners connect the learning materials presented to them in the form of ready-made conclusions with their already formed cognitive structure, so as to realize the learning method of mastering this learning material; Discovery learning is a way for students to acquire new knowledge and seek solutions to problems on their own without being told by teachers. Discovery learning depends on learners' autonomous discovery. Contrary to Bruner's emphasis on discovery learning, Ausubel emphasized acceptance learning.

(2) Mechanical learning, that is, learning without understanding repetition, that is, only memorizing learning materials mechanically; Meaningful learning means that the new knowledge expressed by language or symbols can establish substantive and non-artificial connections with the existing old knowledge in learners' cognitive structure. Meaningful learning requires two conditions: students should have the intention of meaningful learning, that is, the intention of linking new knowledge with the original appropriate concepts in the cognitive structure; Learning materials have potential significance for learning, that is, learning materials have logical significance and can be associated with related concepts in students' cognitive structure. These two conditions are indispensable, otherwise it will lead to mechanical learning.

▲ Gagne

The representative who combined behaviorism learning theory with cognitive learning theory absorbed reasonable elements from the two theories, and introduced the viewpoints and methods of modern information theory after 1970s, thus becoming the representative who emphasized the information processing model in cognitive learning theory school.

Cumulative learning theory

Learning process is the process of receiving and using information, and learning is the result of the interaction between subject and environment. Individual's previous learning leads to the growth of individual wisdom. Teaching advocates giving students the fullest guidance, so that students can learn step by step according to carefully stipulated learning procedures. Knowledge learning can be regarded as a chain of motivation stage (anticipation), understanding stage (attention and selective perception), acquisition stage (coded storage channel), retention stage (memory storage), recall stage (retrieval), generalization stage (migration), operation stage (reaction) and feedback stage (reinforcement).

Gagne believes that external events can be planned and executed in various ways to strengthen, maintain, promote or enhance the internal learning process. This process is the teaching process. Gagne divided the teaching process related to the above-mentioned learning process into eight stages.

(1) Motivation stage: A certain learning situation becomes the inducement of learning behavior and stimulates individual learning activities. At this stage, it is necessary to arouse students' psychological expectation of achieving their learning goals;

⑵ Understanding stage: At this stage, teaching measures should attract students' attention, provide stimulation and guide attention, so that the specific characteristics of the stimulation situation can be selectively perceived by students;

(3) Acquisition stage: this stage plays a coding role, that is, the selected information is processed to transform short-term memory into long-term memory;

(4) Retention stage: after retelling and reinforcement, the obtained information is permanently stored in long-term memory in a certain form (representation or concept);

5. Recall stage: this stage is the retrieval process, that is, the process of searching for stored knowledge and reviving it;

(6) Summary stage: applying the acquired knowledge and skills to new situations, which involves the transfer of learning;

(7) Homework stage: most of the teaching in this stage is to provide opportunities to apply knowledge, so that students can show their learning effects and prepare for the next stage of feedback;

⑻ Feedback stage: Learners complete new homework and realize that they have reached the expected goal, thus strengthening their learning motivation. Gagne believes that it is worth noting that the reinforcement of motivation dominates human learning, because the expectations established in the learning motivation stage are confirmed in the feedback stage at this moment.

Another important idea of Gagne's cumulative learning theory is his classification of learning. Gagne divides learning into eight categories according to the situation in which learning takes place, and arranges them according to the level from low to high:

The first category, signal learning: classical conditioned reflex, including involuntary response;

The second category, stimulus response learning: operating conditioned reflex;

The third category, chain learning: a combination of a series of stimulus actions;

The fourth category, the combination of languages: just like the third category of learning, it is just the connection of language units;

The fifth category, multiple discrimination learning: discriminating the differences of multiple stimuli;

The sixth category, concept learning: the response to the abstract characteristics of things when classifying stimuli;

The seventh category, principle learning: combination of concepts;

Eighth, solve the problem: apply the principle to achieve the ultimate goal under various conditions.

According to students' learning results, this paper puts forward five ways to divide learning results:

(1) Speech information refers to knowledge that can be expressed in words;

⑵ Wisdom skill refers to the ability to use symbols to do things;

(3) cognitive strategies, internal control and special cognitive skills to regulate cognitive activities;

(4) Motor skill refers to the acquired ability to coordinate one's own muscle activities;

5] Attitude refers to the internal state that determines the acquisition of individual behavior choices.