17 and 18 century Germany lags far behind Britain and France in politics and economy. Due to feudal separatism and sectarian strife, the development of capitalism is quite slow. The German bourgeoisie is weak. It does not dare to make revolution like the bourgeoisie in Britain and France, but succumbs to feudal forces. From 65438 to 1970s, influenced by the French Enlightenment, pan-patriotism appeared in German education, which supported Rousseau's thought, paid attention to children's free development and carried out a wide range of educational activities. /kloc-From the end of 0/8 to the beginning of the 20th century, the new humanism movement rose in Germany, and the ancient Greek culture and all useful things were respected, which promoted the development of German culture, art and education. /kloc-The war between Prussia and France at the beginning of the 9th century promoted German education to some extent, and education began to reform. 187 1 year, the German Empire was declared, Germany finally completed its reunification, and Germany's economy and education began to enter a new period of development. By the beginning of the 20th century, Germany had become the second largest capitalist power after the United States. From17th century to19th century, Germany lagged behind Britain and France politically and economically. There are many small countries in Germany, and the long-term feudal separatist regime has made the development of German capitalism quite slow, and the bourgeoisie has great weakness and compromise. With the growing strength of the working class, the German bourgeoisie is even more afraid to carry out the revolutionary struggle against the feudal aristocracy. This is a remarkable feature of the domestic situation in Germany. Of course, the development of European political situation also directly or indirectly affects the development of German education.

I. Compulsory education

The initial school education in Germany was closely related to the Reformation. First of all, the religious reform in Germany made Protestant sects occupy an absolute advantage in Germany (especially in the north). From Luther to the devout, because of the expansion of Protestant forces, they attach great importance to education. Under the influence of Luther's thought (1483- 1546), it was decided that every state in China began to promulgate laws to popularize compulsory education in the middle of16th century, making Germany the first country in modern western countries to popularize compulsory education.

1559, wittingburg promulgated the compulsory education law, which stipulated that the state should set up primary schools in every village and force parents to send their children to school. 1580, Saxony also promulgated the compulsory education law; 16 19, Weimar's education law stipulated that all children between the ages of 8 and 12 should go to school. Among many principalities that have enacted compulsory education laws, Prussia's education law is the most prominent. Prussia's Civil Code promulgated in 1794 has provisions on school education, which clearly stipulates that schools at all levels (including universities) are state institutions, and it is the responsibility of the state to manage and educate young people, and schools should give students useful knowledge; The establishment of schools must be approved by the state; All public schools must accept the supervision of the government, and the government can send people to inspect and supervise the schools at any time. The Civil Law also stipulates that even schools still under the jurisdiction of the church, or schools under the jurisdiction of the government and the church, must act in accordance with the legislation formulated by the state. In case of dispute, the government will make a decision. Although the Civil Law is not a special education law, it is generally regarded as the "Magna Carta" of Prussian secular education in Germany. In addition, several kings of Prussia have issued educational decrees for many times, detailing the specific requirements and measures of the state in running schools, compulsory education, school curriculum, school funds, teachers' and parents' responsibilities. Although many of these decrees were not well implemented, they showed the secularization characteristics of modern German education.

Second, liberal arts secondary schools and practical schools

17-18th century, the main form of German middle schools was liberal arts middle schools, which were equivalent to English grammar schools or public schools.17-18th century was the period with the strongest classical color in liberal arts middle schools. Liberal arts middle school is a school that fully embodies the requirements of the nobility. Only aristocratic children can go to this school. Its main task is to prepare for further study, so that the children of nobles can become professionals in the upper class of society, such as doctors, lawyers, priests and officials. There is no direct relationship between liberal arts middle schools and primary schools. As early as17th century ago, such an unwritten law was formed. Receiving primary education is the obligation of the children of laborers, while studying in liberal arts middle schools is the exclusive right of princes and nobles. Only students from liberal arts middle schools have the right to enter universities, so there is a direct relationship between liberal arts middle schools and universities. The task of liberal arts middle schools is to train freshmen for universities and ordinary officials for the government.

Due to the development of industry and commerce and the influence of modern science on social life,/kloc-At the beginning of the 8th century, practical middle schools appeared in Germany, which were opposite to liberal arts middle schools and gradually developed. The development of practical middle schools is due to the fact that although the development of capitalism in Germany is relatively slow and the bourgeoisie is relatively weak, industry and commerce are still developing. The phenomenon that nobles enjoy secondary education alone is extremely unfavorable to the growth of the bourgeoisie and the development of capitalist industry and commerce. Moreover, liberal arts middle schools that specialize in cultivating aristocratic children simply cannot adapt to and meet the requirements of industry and commerce for educational development, and practical middle schools were born to meet this social demand. They have both the nature of general education and vocational education, and are a new type of school. 1659, Frank (1663- 1727), a devout believer, opened a national school in Halle, teaching with practical contents and intuitive methods, and later founded a science school. 1708, the pious Himmler (Christopher, 1669- 1740) founded the School of Mathematics, Mechanics and Economics, including mathematics, physics, machinery, astronomy, geography, law and painting. In the teaching of these subjects, intuitive teaching methods are adopted, and intuitive teaching AIDS such as paintings, charts, specimens and models are used to enhance students' understanding of the teaching content. 1747, Heck (1707- 1790) opened the "School of Economics and Mathematics" in Berlin, which was the first formal middle school in Germany. In this school, students study in the preparatory class first, and then choose a major according to their own wishes, such as geometry, architecture, physics, commodity manufacturing, trade or economics. The school has achieved remarkable results, and there are also craft classes and teacher training classes. Since then, German practical schools have continued, and gradually became an important part of the German education system in the19th century. The emergence of pragmatism has opened the prelude to the struggle between liberal arts middle schools and practical middle schools, and also reflected the contest between new natural disciplines and old classical disciplines, the struggle between capitalist mode of production and feudal mode of production, strengthened the connection between science and education, and also had an important impact on the development of liberal arts middle schools. But in the whole18th century, the strength of practical middle schools is much weaker than that of liberal arts middle schools, and their social status is much lower than that of liberal arts middle schools.

Third, pan-love education.

From 65438 to 70' s, a "Pan-Aiism" education movement appeared in Germany. Bassado (1724- 1790), the founder of Pan-Love School, put forward that education should cultivate students' virtues such as fraternity, temperance and hard work, pay attention to practicality and children's interest in the process of education, oppose scholasticism and classical education that suppress children's development, and emphasize that the most important task of education is to enhance human happiness in this world and cultivate health and knowledge. Like Rousseau, pan-lovers believe that children are kind by nature. They ask educators to love children and let them develop freely. They also attach importance to sports and believe that a healthy body is the necessary foundation for children's mental development. Therefore, outdoor activities play an important role in the schools run by Pan aitis. Brazil also put forward the progressive education concept of combining education with games, and called on the society to donate money to help students. In teaching, Pan-Aiists attach importance to the development of rationality and modern language and natural science knowledge. 1774, Brazil founded "Pan-Love School" in Dessau, and practiced his educational thought. Pan-love school enrolls students aged 6 to 18, and exempts those students who are ready to become teachers from tuition fees. Although this school only existed for 19 years, it played a very good role in changing the feudal education in Germany. In its shadow, Germany also opened other pan-love schools at that time. These schools mainly teach practical knowledge, mother tongue, foreign languages, physical education, music, dance and other subjects. In the teaching process, they adopt the method of "conforming to nature", based on the principle of intuition, and cultivate children's intelligence through dialogue, games and visits, so that children can learn actively.

In order to publicize their ideas, pan-patriotic educators have also written and published some educational works. During the period of 1770- 1774, Brazil published more pamphlets "elementary reading materials". This is an illustrated children's book similar to Comenius' Illustrated World, which was well received and welcomed at that time. During this period, he also compiled the Handbook of Educational Methods. In addition, Salsmann, who later founded Pan-Love School, wrote three books on universal education at 1774- 188 1, respectively criticizing the disadvantages of education at that time and expounding the requirements of new education and teacher training. This has played an important role in promoting the development of pan-love schools and the spread of bourgeois progressive education ideas.

Fourthly, Humboldt's educational reform.

19th century is a period of great changes in German society and education. 1806 Prussia's defeat prompted Germany to carry out various reforms. Under the impetus of neo-humanism, Germany has adjusted and reorganized educational leading institutions, and then reorganized and reformed schools at all levels. Humboldt (1767- 1835) has played an important role in the educational reform. He was one of the representatives of New Humanism, and was then the Minister of Education of Germany. According to the educational thought of new humanism, he made a series of reform plans, including academic system, curriculum, examination, teaching methods, school management and teacher training.

Fourthly, Humboldt's educational reform.

19th century is a period of great changes in German society and education. 1806 Prussia's defeat prompted Germany to carry out various reforms. Under the impetus of neo-humanism, Germany has adjusted and reorganized educational leading institutions, and then reorganized and reformed schools at all levels. Humboldt (1767- 1835) has played an important role in the educational reform. He was one of the representatives of New Humanism, and was then the Minister of Education of Germany. According to the educational thought of new humanism, he made a series of reform plans, including academic system, curriculum, examination, teaching methods, school management and teacher training.

In terms of primary education, he believes that the purpose of primary education is to develop students' rationality, cultivate students' moral sentiments, cultivate students' religious feelings, and prepare for further study. In terms of subject content, he reduced religious theology courses and added practical knowledge subjects, such as natural history, geography and knowledge of nature, so that students could learn extensive and useful cultural knowledge. In teaching methods, we should abolish corporal punishment and rote learning, and adopt object-oriented teaching, which will help students understand and remember. Humboldt also paid special attention to the quantity and quality of primary school teachers, and improved and improved teacher training. On the one hand, he invited Pestalozzi's student Schiller (1774- 1847) from Switzerland to run a normal school in Prussia; On the other hand, he sent 18 teachers to Switzerland to learn from Pestalozzi himself, so as to develop normal education and train primary school teachers in Germany. During this period, Herbart and Froebel, who went to Switzerland to learn from Pestalozzi, both looked for ways to improve education from different angles. /kloc-At the beginning of the 8th century, normal schools were established in Germany. After returning to Switzerland to study, many normal schools were set up according to Pestalozzi's method. In the 1920s and 1930s, German normal education developed greatly under the influence of Pestalozzi. Stowe Hui is a famous educator in Germany who directly accepted Pestalozzi's thought and established normal education. During this period, German normal schools trained students in many ways. Normal students have a wide range of subjects, including German and literature, mathematics, geography, history, nature, physics, education (pedagogy, psychology, teaching methods, etc. ), and theology, and adopted some positive methods in teaching. The development of normal education provides a certain foundation for more primary school teachers and promotes the development and improvement of primary education.

In middle school education, Humboldt's reform has greatly improved the running direction, curriculum content, teaching methods and even teachers' quality of liberal arts middle schools. 18 10 middle school education plan reduces the content of classical Chinese subjects, takes Chinese and mathematics as basic courses, and adds geography, history, natural science and other subjects. In this way, the teaching content has changed from simple classicism to various aspects, and classical middle schools are closer to real life. In addition, Humboldt stipulated in the reform that anyone who wants to be a middle school teacher must pass the national examination, and those who pass the examination are awarded the title of middle school teacher. The examination is entrusted by the state to universities, and the subjects and requirements of the examination are based on the courses offered by universities to train middle school teachers. This has changed the phenomenon that teachers in liberal arts middle schools can only be served by theologians and priests, and broken the situation that liberal arts middle schools rely on monks, because before that, teachers in liberal arts middle schools were generally served by theologians who were preparing to take up the post of priests after graduating from college.

In higher education, Humboldt put forward the principle of academic freedom and the principle of combining teaching with research. 18 10, Humboldt founded the University of Berlin with the help of some colleagues, and adopted a new school-running concept and planning, focusing on advanced professional research and the improvement of scientific and academic level. In terms of teaching methods, we should set up lectures instead of memorizing them, attach importance to professors' speeches, and advocate teachers and students' independent research and its achievements and contributions to academics. On this basis, many new universities have been established, such as Bonn University and Munich University. The surviving universities have tried their best to make some changes after the new ones. The direction of running a university advocated by Humboldt has a great influence on the improvement and improvement of American higher education.