The demise of the Qing Dynasty is different from that of the Ming Dynasty.
The demise of the Ming Dynasty was a defeat in the campaign. Although there were officials and scholars who surrendered, many scholars did not cooperate and resisted. Loyalty and martyrdom were recognized as the highest realm by officials and scholars at that time. Many people fail to do it for various reasons and are considered cowardly, selfish and immoral, although they can be forgiven. The rule of the early Qing dynasty also encountered many troubles.
The demise of the Qing Dynasty was a complete internal collapse. In the central government, Prime Minister Yuan Shikai was absolutely disloyal to the Qing Dynasty. At the local level, Governor Shen Bingkun of Guangxi, Governor Zhu Jiabao of Anhui and Governor Cheng Dejin of Jiangsu took the initiative to make revolution. As a part of the ruling machine of the Qing Dynasty, the provincial consultative bureaus generally sympathized with or participated in the revolution, and many people were the organizers and leaders of the local anti-Qing revolution. As the most important part of the ruling machine in Qing Dynasty, there were many rebellions in the army, especially the new army. Among the senior officers at the town (division) level and the coordination (brigade) level, there is almost no loyalty and martyrdom, but there are many rebellions. Southerners who negotiated peace between the North and the South in Shanghai, such as Wu and Zhao Fengchang, were officials of the Qing Dynasty. As the top scholar of the Qing Dynasty, Zhang Jian took the initiative to clear the court, and it is said that he was also the drafter of abdication letters, which was unimaginable in the Ming Dynasty.
As the main body of China's traditional thought, what role did Confucianism play at this time? What happened at this time?
Confucianism naturally has multiple faces, but its core face is political thought, which stresses "loyalty". The core of "loyalty" is naturally "loyalty to the monarch". In the first 50 years of the Qing Dynasty, when Xian Tong was in power, Confucianism also produced a large number of loyal ministers, such as Zeng Guofan, Jiang Zongyuan, Hu Linyi, Zuo, Li Hongzhang, Luo, Shen Baozhen, Guo Songtao and Liu Mingchuan. But by this time, Confucianism still occupied the dominant position on the surface, but it extracted the spirit of loyalty, and the basic aspects of political thought in the late Qing Dynasty changed.
In the late Qing dynasty, many officials and scholars were unwilling to be loyal to other nationalities because of the influence of racial revolution, and no longer loyal to the Qing dynasty. But most of them don't advocate racial revolution. How and how have their thoughts changed?
Yan Xiu and Cai Yuanpei
From this, we can take a look at two important figures in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. They are Yan Xiu, the founder of Nankai University, and Cai Yuanpei, the "eternal president" of Peking University.
Yan Xiu (1860- 1929) received strict Confucian training since childhood. He is a scholar and entered imperial academy. 1894, was compiled by the Hanlin Academy as the academic affairs of Guizhou, and presided over the academic affairs of a province. Probably influenced by the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1897, he played in 1897 and proposed to open a special economic course. Emperor Guangxu accepted it, and the relevant preparations were in progress, which became a major reform topic in the Reform Movement of 1898. 1898 After the coup, he took time off to go back to Tianjin, went to a girls' school and taught himself western learning. He went to Japan twice to inspect education. From 65438 to 0902, at the invitation of Yuan Shikai, he served as the inspector of Zhili School Department, and was the initiator and host of modern education in Zhili (especially in Tianjin). 1905, the Qing dynasty set up a department, and he served as assistant minister. 19 10 returned to Tianjin due to illness, and Yuan Shikai organized the cabinet, and later served as the minister of the department. He was the main practitioner and leader of educational reform in the late Qing Dynasty. During this period, his thought changed from the original knowledge structure to the new education, and it seems that he did not encounter too many obstacles. His abdication of the Qing emperor seems to be not unexpected, but obedient; The establishment of the Republic of China seems to be neither unexpected nor popular. Nankai Middle School and Nankai University, which he later founded, have not seen many characteristics of Confucianism or Confucian classics in the past.
Yan Xiu
Cai Yuanpei (1868- 1940) was also cultivated by Confucianism. He is a scholar and entered imperial academy. 1898 After the coup, I took time off to apply for Chinese and Western schools, and then I went to Shanghai to apply for Chengzhong School, Nanyang Public School, Chinese Education Association and Patriotic Association. 1904 participated in organizing the Guangfu association, and later joined the league (with racial revolutionary ideas). 1906, the Qing dynasty sent Hanlin abroad, and he returned to Beijing to apply for a vacation, which failed to make it. The following year, he went to Germany with Sun Baodi, the new envoy of the Qing Dynasty to Germany, and studied at Leipzig University for three years (Sun Baodi once gave some financial aid), and thoroughly accepted western learning. Returning to China during the Revolution of 1911, he served as the education chief of Nanjing Provisional Government, and was an important revolutionary. During the Beiyang period, he went abroad to France. 1965438+returned to China in 2006 and served as the president of Peking University. During the main school, he put forward the idea of "inclusiveness".
Yan Xiu and Cai Yuanpei, both scholars, entered imperial academy, ran here and there, took the initiative to get out of traditional ideas, spread new ideas and new academics, and started running schools. As far as the late Qing Dynasty is concerned, Yan Xiu was more official and Cai Yuanpei was more folk, but it did not affect their general direction. From the perspective of ideological history, they completed their own ideological revolution and carried out it. They were influential people at that time and later.
By the way, the word "patriotism" in the patriotic society hosted by Cai Yuanpei is no longer "loyalty", but has the concept of a modern country. Most of the teachers and students of the patriotic society are anti-Qing.
Cai Yuanpei
Ye's main body and the strategy of abolishing stereotyped writing reform
Yan Xiu and Cai Yuanpei were pioneers in imperial academy, the most important academic institution in Qing Dynasty, or people who took the initiative to enter modern times from tradition. Where are the others in imperial academy?
Recently, due to class, I was reading Diary of Yuan Dadu, one of the four diaries in the late Qing Dynasty. The author Ye (1849- 19 17), whose ancestral home is Suzhou, is a learned and versatile epitaph and philologist. 1889 Jinshi, entered the academician courtyard. 1902 was edited by the Hanlin Academy and went to Gansu to study politics. 1in August, 903, he asked Lanzhou ancient academy for three topics:
Let Jude plunge into the river (classic from Zhou Songshi, meaning to let water and Jude water flow into the Yellow River)
European countries use gold pounds, China uses silver, and gold is expensive and silver is cheap. There is a huge public-private leak. That is to say, in terms of silver coins, westerners say that a shilling weighs 22 cents, which is easier than China silver, and it is the same silver coin. China and the west are not enemies, and the law remains unchanged. How to maintain it?
What should be printed in the newly established Lanzhou official bookstore (Ye Diary, July 9, Guangxu 29)
Qiugu Academy is the most important academy in Lanzhou. At this time, the knowledge has completely changed (Ye said in his diary on February 15th, 29th year of Guangxu: "Country-specific ones are overseers and ministers in the provincial capital. Seek the ancient academy, minister of learning and politics. Old example. " )。 The first question is more traditional. Ye is in Lanzhou at this time, which seems to be a tribute to "a week's life". Question 2: I don't know which department I belong to. The departments of economics, politics, finance and sociology all seem to be related. What does the third question refer to, that is, the current affairs book that was most lacking at that time. Ye himself has few such books, mainly from Ann. This kind of book is rare in Xi 'an, and even less in Lanzhou. It needs printing and typesetting. And how do these Lanzhou students who haven't read current affairs books or read them much compare and answer? As a province studying politics, Ye has to take the exam twice in every province and state. Among them, in the palace examination of Gong Changfu, the ancient proposition is:
The earth is one of the spherical planets. Its celestial bodies float in the air with all boundaries, and the ground also has certain boundaries. Try to be reasonable.
Gong Changshi's stone carvings went up to the Han and Wei Dynasties and down to the Song and Yuan Dynasties, and were written in the year and month, either preserved or lost. Give what you know to the right.
Ge Hanshu's theory
The name of the bronze drum is:
Air flows for the wind and expands and contracts due to cold and heat. Try to be reasonable.
Ask the famous Longyou area of Changgong what the humanities have refined, what the predecessors have written and what the literature is full of. Try to discuss the general idea of writing a book with the purpose of four rules, just like an abstract example.
Jiang Wei's theory
Among them, the first and second topics are "strategies", and Ye is afraid of having children, so he can't do the first topic (talking about the horizon and the generation of wind respectively), especially stating that "two strategies can choose one topic and do everything" to make up for his lack of western learning with local knowledge (Ye Diary, February 28, Guangxu 29). He has three problems in Xining:
Begging the ancients to fight. Today, eastern and western countries are struggling with commerce, industry and agriculture, and trying to explain their significance (Ye Diary, May 29th, Guangxu 29th).
What conclusions can students draw from such a topic? Ye is not good at western learning, but he has contacts with Feng Guifen, Jiang Biao, Fenitz and Zhang Zhidong. I doubt whether he has a complete and generally accurate understanding of international communication, land leveling, fashion and "learning war", and I don't know his grading standards. It is likely that his aides are operating. He is not from the new school. He did it because of his position. His topic should be regarded as the most mainstream political thought and academic thought in the late Qing Dynasty, expressing the official will.
This year (the 29th year of Guangxu, 1903), I was deeply touched by reading Ye's diary. I also know the relevant background, that is, two years ago, 190 1 year, the Qing dynasty announced that stereotyped writing would be abolished from next year, and the provincial examinations and public examinations would be tried out. Leaves can't stay the same. 1906, the Qing dynasty abolished learning politics and set up scholars, so Ye stopped being an official and returned to the village. He used to be the general school of history and geography of Jiangsu Gugu School, and no longer served as an official after the Republic of China. He was a little relieved when he heard the news of zhang xun restoration, but he didn't think it would last long.
The year recorded in Ye Diary (1903) was the first and last special economic course in Qing Dynasty. The Qing dynasty adopted the "Guimao academic system" and stipulated a three-stage seven-level academic system. The following year, 1904 (the 30th year of Guangxu reign), the Qing dynasty held the last exam in Kaifeng, namely "Chen Jia Cohen" exam. The examination questions have changed a lot. The first historical theory (five questions):
In the Zhou and Tang Dynasties, external factors were more important than internal factors, while in the Qin and Wei Dynasties, external factors were more important than internal factors, and each had its own theory.
Jia Yi's theory of "five baits and three tables" was ridiculed by Ban Gu. However, Qin Mugong used it to dominate Xirong, and the theory of Bank of China was also based on abstinence, which was not invalid.
Zhuge Liang used his skills and was not interested in business talks, while Wang Anshi used the facts of business talks to avoid fame.
Pei Du's performance as prime minister should be to recruit talents and staff, so please meet him privately.
On the Northern Song Dynasty's Seal of Gold and the Southern Song Dynasty's Aid for Yuan's Attack on Cai.
Second political art strategies in various countries (five topics);
The purpose of schools is threefold, so Tao Zhu citizens can cultivate talents and revitalize industries. If people can't stand on their own feet, they should learn to teach them, so that everyone can have the virtues of kindness, loyalty and love, self-reliance skills and necessary knowledge, which is the same for all countries. Japanese people pay special attention to the spirit of Wushu, which is also the education of Tao Zhu citizens. Focus on politics, law, financial management, diplomacy, etc. To prepare for the appointment, which also creates the education of talents. Education in agriculture, industry, commerce and mining is offered separately for the sake of enriching the country and benefiting the people, as well as revitalizing industry. Which is the most urgent policy?
Taixi's foreign policy often gains benefits in the name of protecting land, and cites nearly a hundred years of history to prove its policy.
At the beginning of Japan's political reform, hiring westerners made the country strong, and Egypt used more than 1000 foreigners, thus losing its financial judgment, and the country was devastated. Try to explain its advantages and disadvantages.
Zhou Li said that agricultural politics is the most detailed, and all kinds of scholars have farmers' knowledge. In recent years, most countries rely on people to transfer climate to study agriculture, which means that only by making good use of land, capital and labor can we acquire real knowledge. Fang Ming's academic system is now listed as an expert, hoping to preserve the legacy of important skills. Try Chen Jiaonong's strategy
The United States has long banned China workers. At the end of this decade, it is urgent to invoke public law to refute the original agreement in order to protect overseas Chinese.
Three or four books and five classics (three questions):
The way of a university is to be well-known, to be close to the people, and to stop at perfection and righteousness (university).
Neutrality and justice, strength and justice (moderation)
To the people of the world, to gather the wealth of the world, and to return after the transaction, each has its own meaning (under the easy copula).
From the content and form of the examination questions, it is essentially different from the original imperial examination. Judging from today's knowledge level, the first historical theory is difficult for the best historians to answer clearly, nor can it be answered according to historical facts. The questioner has another intention. The second game, western politics and art, is a question discussed by politicians and experts from all walks of life, and there can be no standard answer; In the third game, the Four Books and Five Classics actually contained a new understanding of the national politics at that time. Can we really find talents who are helpful to the country and the world by selecting talents with such topics?
The last list of Qing Dynasty (also the last list of China) will test 276 Jinshi. If we analyze the subsequent experiences of these 276 people, we really have everything. At this time, it was very close to the demise of the Qing Dynasty, but I remember that none of these people were loyal and honest. Merchants who worked in the Qing Dynasty, Beiyang and the National Government worked in the National Government for a short time. In People's Republic of China (PRC), he served as deputy director of the Central Museum of Literature and History.
Another year, 1905 (the thirty-first year of Guangxu), the imperial examination was abolished. In the new education system, Confucian classics is only one of the subjects. After removing the support of the imperial examination, the traditional Confucianism collapsed and became useless in the hearts of young students. On the traditional way from "knowing the book" to "reaching the gift", people are getting thinner and thinner.
Ye Chichang
Zhang Zhidong's Inner World
The imperial examination questions represent the official ideology to a great extent, and the demise of the imperial examination shows the change of the official mainstream political thought. One of the most important representatives is Zhang Zhidong (1837- 1909), who presided over the reform of the education system in the late Qing Dynasty. His main representative work, Persuading to Learn, was written by people in the screen, but it still reflected his thoughts, and was completed in 1898 (in the twenty-fourth year of Guangxu, that is, the Reform Movement of 1898).
Recently, I reread Xu Shichang's diary and found an interesting record. 1897, Xu Shichang, editor and chief of staff of Yuan Shikai, came to Wuchang. Zhang Zhidong and Xu met as many as 16 times, and each conversation lasted for a long time, often at midnight or even at dawn. They are fellow villagers. Zhang is also a person who likes to talk at night. More importantly, at the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, in June of 10, Xu Shichang proposed to transfer Zhang Zhidong to preside over the overall situation of state affairs, and the court ordered Zhang Zhidong to go to Beijing for this purpose. Later, because Liu Kunyi, the governor of Liangjiang, went to Shanhaiguan for Du Shi, Zhang Zhidong was changed to be the governor of Liangjiang. Therefore, Zhang treats Xu differently. Xu Shichang's diary recorded their conversation, from which we can clearly see Zhang's inner world:
Ask where to start saving the big picture today. Mi Wengyun has three things: running more newspapers, running more schools and building more railways. And the soldiers, peasants, workers and businessmen who have the effect of integrating the three depends on the achievements of these five, and it is still nothing more than changing the imperial examination. Running more newspapers can be the eyes and ears of the new world and shock the deaf; Building more schools can promote talents in the world, or get one or two outstanding people to support the mess; If the railway is wide open, it can communicate with the world, such as the Guangdong-Han Road, the Luhan Road, the Fengtian-Bertuna Road, and the Russian Road. If they are all completed within five or six years, China will not be in danger. This is a big news, thousands of times higher than usual. As for changing the imperial examination, it can't be changed overnight, but it will be changed eventually. (Xu Shichang's Diary on September 29th, 23rd year of Guangxu)
"Xiang Weng" is Zhang Zhidong, and his name is Xiang Tao. Fengtian, now Shenyang. Boduna, now Jilin Fuyu. Zhang Zhidong refers to the newly-built railway from Shanhaiguan to Fengtian in China, which extends to Boduna and connects with the Middle East Road in Russia. At that time, Russia had obtained the right to build the Middle East Road (from Manzhouli to Suifenhe via Harbin) connecting trans-siberian railway and Vladivostok, but it had not yet obtained the right to build the Middle East Road branch line (from Harbin to Dalian via Changchun and Shenyang).
Zhangzhidong
Zhang Zhidong is a master of imperial examinations. Born in nominal age 14 years old, elected in nominal age 16 years old (Shun Tianfu tried to solve the problem). 27-year-old Jinshi, spent the imperial examination exploring flowers (two years of Tongzhi 1863), and entered imperial academy. After so many years, he even advocated changing the imperial examination. The newspapers, schools and railways he talked about conflict with the traditional Confucian system, but they are related to the new examination questions in Ye mentioned earlier. Xu also remember:
Mi Wengyun: Five men, peasants and workers, soldiers, soldiers must rely on the wealth of businessmen, but peasants and workers can't succeed. However, farmers, workers and soldiers cannot be refined. Today, Tessie is based on business, and the few suspicious businessmen in MengMeng can be summarized by four people. This statement can break doubts and arouse public interest. However, those who are scholars still don't strive to be worthy of the name, so they can hide. It is also said that China's weakness, traced back to the source, began with the quietness of old history, followed by the emptiness of Buddhism, followed by the pedantry of Neo-Confucianism. In the heyday of the old man, he washed away the harassment of the Qin dynasty; The Buddha flourished in Jin, but it was a bit miserable for a while; Neo-Confucianism flourished in the Song Dynasty, which contributed greatly to the Five Dynasties Rebellion. It is beneficial to the world and can save the disadvantages of a generation. However, they are all quiet and don't want to move. Just as celestial bodies maintain vitality through movement, a gentleman should constantly pursue self-improvement. It does not move, so that it is too weak to vibrate, and only now. Since the Tang Dynasty, scholars who have made achievements in ci chapters have benefited from their talents. Until this dynasty, I was more eager to try to post in lowercase, which was a very restrictive way of posting. When an official is in office, it is inevitable that he will be tested by words, so how can he obtain economic talents? If you don't change your mind, China will never have a chance to revitalize itself. It is useless for him to decorate himself with fur. He also said: If you can manage and manage ge well, you will make a great contribution to the world. (Diary of Xu Shichang, October 2nd, 23rd year of Guangxu)
Zhang Zhidong believes that among the five sons, the scholar is the most critical, that is, "the scholar is not the exquisite training of the scholar." At this time, he opposed the old school, Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism, and even opposed the imperial examination system, advocating "changing plans" and learning from Guan Zhong and Zhuge Liang. As a senior official of the Qing Dynasty and the spiritual leader of many literati at that time, Zhang's thought will play an important role. Xu also remember:
On the third night, Mao Weng talked about this matter, and his thoughts were myriad. He said that the imperial examination should be changed, but he also said that his method was urgent and difficult. Gulp, horizontal theory of ancient and modern, until the fourth more □ do the beginning. (Diary of Xu Shichang, October 4th, 23rd year of Guangxu. Love, Yao Qian)
Xiang Weng talked about drinking at night, talking about the learning of China and the West, the difference between western politics and western learning, and the ignorance of people at that time, which was annoying. Ask where Yu Zhixue belongs, and choose one thing to say. I'm eager to tell you current events, and I'd like to hear about how to stand on your feet. Yun: At present, those who are just beginning to learn and become excellent officials pay attention to western politics first, dabble in western learning by sexual orientation, and still focus on middle school. Because the theory of middle school is very clear, we should have a defense and then do something. On tongzhi's regaining fame as a minister. Andrew began to sleep. (Diary of Xu Shichang, October 7th, 23rd year of Guangxu. Andrew, four o'clock in the morning. In addition, Xu Shichang also wrote: "Mao Weng made an appointment to drink at night, and talked deeply about the material and temperament of strangers in various provinces. He wants to promote the talents in Zhili, saying that he should read more books, walk more and meet more people. Once the road to Russia is completed, you can travel abroad more and there will be tangible benefits. " )
Xu Shichang is a very cautious person, and generally doesn't record too many things in his diary. The reason why he writes so much is naturally influenced by Zhang's inner world.
From Xu Shichang's diary, I was surprised to find that there are many similarities between Zhang Zhidong's remarks and Liang Qichao's political articles such as Political Reform and General Discussion published in Current Affairs. We can't think that Zhang Zhidong was influenced by Kang and Liang. In the conversation with Xu, he clearly stated: "We should try our best to take care of everything and not be confused by heresy." The term heresy refers to Kang Xue. However, from the night talk in Wuchang Governor's Mansion in the 23rd year of Guangxu, we can vaguely see the shadow of "saving the Yangtze River for 30% off", the shadow of "Guimao academic system" and the shadow of Zhang Shangyou stopping the imperial examination. Zhang Zhidong tried to stop the political revolution all his life, but he actually launched an ideological revolution-"taking middle school as the body and western learning as the use" was his design-and his missionary work for hundreds of years paved the way for countries with the most basic knowledge of western learning; Westernization, which lasted for decades, also showed the practical application effect of western knowledge. However, after the change of the old imperial examination system and the establishment of the new education system, the middle school gradually lost its role.
Here, it seems that I still need to say a few words to help "Chinese style and western use". Today's people have misunderstandings about "Chinese style and western use", and even accuse them of not completely changing it into "western style and western use" Sun Jianai, the first teacher of Emperor Guangxu and the first management minister of Shi Jing University, clearly used the saying that "middle school is the body and western learning is the use". Between "Chinese style and western style", what Zhang Zhidong and Sun Jianai emphasized was "western style" (there was no doubt about "Chinese style and western style" at that time), that is, to accommodate western learning and make it formally enter the official ideology of the Qing Dynasty. This can be seen very clearly from "Outside the Persuasion". Their proposal still had certain political risks at that time:1after the coup in 898, conservative forces came to power and "western use" failed; By the time of the Gengzi Rebellion (1900, in the 26th year of Guangxu), five ministers (Prime Minister's yamen minister Xu Jingcheng, Chang Yuan, Xu Yongyi, Lian Yuan and Interior Minister Li Shan) related to "the West" and "the Foreign" were killed by the imperial army.
Xu Shichang
The theme of ideological revolution
It can be seen that the ideological revolution in the late Qing Dynasty began with the defeat of the Sino-Japanese War. In the past, people paid too much attention to the self-promotion of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, thinking that they even thought revolutionaries were the initiators of the ideological revolution. Judging from the broad masses of the people and the vast areas, the propaganda effect of Kang, Liang and the revolutionaries is limited. Zhang Jian, Yan Xiu, Cai Yuanpei, Ye, Zhang Zhidong and Xu Shichang mentioned above, as well as Cecilia Cheung mentioned later, are two scholars and academicians, all of whom can't be influenced by Kang and Liang, and even oppose Kang and Liang. They represented the academic mainstream of that era, the group with the highest level of knowledge and the greatest ideological influence.
I think the ideological revolution in the late Qing Dynasty began with modern education: from the abolition of stereotyped writing to the abolition of the imperial examination, from running a school to sending overseas students, western learning came in, and it expanded bit by bit and became the main part of knowledge. The occurrence and development of all this came from imperial edicts and was promoted by a large number of Qing government officials, such as Zhang Zhidong, Yan Xiu, Xu Shichang and Ye. Even Cai Yuanpei taught Chinese and Western history in 1906 for a semester. From this, I think that the ideological revolution in the late Qing Dynasty was dominated by the Qing government, and its main body was the highest elite of the Qing Dynasty, including many officials in imperial academy.
In my opinion, at that time, the decisive role advocated by the government seemed to be inestimable. In the era of imperial examination system, most people who study hard are not for the growth of personal knowledge, nor for the improvement of personal practice, but for rice and rice, in order to get official positions and fame and fortune in the government. At this time, all kinds of new schools sponsored or advocated by the Qing government needed a large number of teachers and teaching materials, attracting more scholars and modern scholars to join them; In addition to continuing to engage in modern education, the graduates of the new school have also entered the society, government, army and all walks of life. They no longer rely on the understanding of the classics of sages, stereotyped writing, poetry and small letters, but on the professional skills of counting, acousto-optic electrification, languages of various countries and even all walks of life. In order to make up for the lack of knowledge in China (middle school), foreign knowledge (western learning) should be placed in a more important position; In order to make up for the shortage of intellectuals in China, studying abroad became the national policy of the Qing Dynasty. At first, foreign doctors only attached themselves to China Jinshi, but later they surpassed them.
The change of imperial examination and education promoted the development of modern media and the emergence of various social groups. I mentioned the topic of leaves earlier. Students of Lanzhou Qiugu Academy and children from all over Gansu can acquire new knowledge only through such new books and periodicals. Social organizations established in the name of all kinds of knowledge have attracted many young people who are eager for knowledge. Compared with the four books and five classics that have remained unchanged for thousands of years, these new books and newspapers are more attractive than those high-level lectures referred to in the imperial examination; In the old knowledge system, it took decades to get from readers to authors, and few of them succeeded. In the new knowledge system, due to the strong demand, many readers soon became authors. Concessions in Shanghai, Tianjin, Hankou and other places have therefore become the centers of cultural industries such as translation, publishing, books and newspapers, and then become the centers of public opinion and social group activities, and become the centers of new civilization and culture.
As an important achievement of the ideological revolution in the late Qing Dynasty, the teachers and students of the new schools in the late Qing Dynasty generally opposed or sympathized with the political revolution. The navy and army (new army) associated with the new education in the late Qing Dynasty also had a considerable proportion of officers who opposed or sympathized with the political revolution. The employees of the new media-newspapers and publishing institutions that appeared in the late Qing Dynasty also tended to sympathize with the political revolutionaries. More obviously, officials of the Qing Dynasty, especially those of the central government, later became officials of the Republic of China. It seems that the Beijing government has just changed a signboard, and its internal personnel have not changed much, especially the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Admiralty. I have helped to consult the biographies compiled by the National Committee for the Compilation of Qing History, mainly those in the second half of Guangxu, and found that according to traditional historiography, many of them should be included in the biographies of two ministers. From the late Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China, and then to People's Republic of China (PRC), many Qing officials were not only "two ministers", but also "three ministers" and even "four ministers". Xu Shichang became the president of the Republic of China. Officials in the late Qing dynasty abandoned the old for the new, which naturally had livelihood reasons, but they did not have much ideological pain when making political choices. This scene is very different from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Of course, there are still some officials who do not want to vote for the new dynasty, but are abandoned by the new dynasty.
As an important achievement of the ideological revolution in the late Qing Dynasty, a considerable number of overseas students were sent by the Qing government or studied at their own expense with the support of the Qing government. To this end, the Qing Dynasty established a preparatory school for studying in the United States. One of them, Hu Shizhi, was a "Geng Kuan" student selected by the Qing government. Imperial academy Hall left by the Qing Dynasty became the center of the ideological revolution in the Republic of China. The overseas students sent by the Qing Dynasty became the backbone of the ideological revolution in the Republic of China. The ideological revolution that began in the late Qing Dynasty came to an end in the May 4th New Culture Movement. Today we can clearly see the continuity between the two. 1898, Zhang Zhidong put forward the idea of "Chinese style and western use", which was originally intended to accommodate western learning in middle schools; 19 17 When Cai Yuanpei put forward "inclusiveness" at Peking University, he was already tolerant of old scholars and Confucianism. In less than 20 years, middle school and western learning changed hands.
Therefore, I think that the ideological revolution from the late Qing Dynasty, through modern education and media tools, through Zhang Zhidong, Ye, Yan Xiu, Cai Yuanpei and others, reached the other side step by step. The content of western learning has come in, and political theory is also the most vigilant part of the Qing Dynasty. The Qing dynasty also censored textbooks, but such censorship could only remove some sensitive words. As a whole, western learning can't be stopped by the transformation of some nouns, but the lofty supremacy of the traditional "four books and five classics" is irretrievably declining. Let's look at two paragraphs in the cloud diary:
..... Recently, new learning has become popular, and the Four Books and Five Classics have been shelved. This volume is often full of energy in the first two games, and the end of the game is hasty, but it is more than 300 words, and most of them are randomly picked up. None of them are close to justice, and they are too big to fight and despise their intentions. The reviewers recommended the first and second scenes, but in the end they had to be tolerant. Over time, it is not difficult for sages to abandon righteousness. Academic people can worry about the party. Zhang and Yuan's military plan to abolish the imperial examination was even more harmful. Yuan Shikai is not enough, and so is Zhang Xiang's old behavior. It hurts! This book is so angry at this point.
Three-year New Deal, citing China's system in 2000, was established for 200 years and was painstakingly eradicated. Nothing is more controversial than this. No one is selfish, regardless of the pulse of the country, and the strength of the people has no sympathy ... The days are shrinking, and the days are different, leading to collapse and betrayal of relatives. I can't help but burst into tears when I think about this. The culprit is Zhang Zhidong and Cecilia Cheung's efforts to make students learn the East. (Cloud Diary, the first day of April in the 29th year of Guangxu, and the sixth day of September in the 3rd year)
Guangxu changed its form in twenty-nine years: the first session focused on history, the second session on strategy (including western politics and art), and the third session on four books and five classics. According to the past habit, the exam only focuses on the first and second games, and the three games are mostly foil. In the second year, that is, the last exam in Guangxu's thirty years, it was still used.
Yun is also a scholar and was edited by the Hanlin Academy. The previous paragraph was written in 1903 (the 29th year of Guangxu) and served as an examiner in the "Guimao Examination". He has a feeling of marking papers and points the finger at Zhang Zhidong. The latter paragraph was written after Wuchang Uprising, and the general trend of Qing Dynasty was unstable. Zhang Zhidong and Cecilia Cheung were both management scholars in Qing Dynasty, designers of modern education system and promoters of studying in Japan. In Yun's view, the reason for the demise of the Qing Dynasty lies in the change of ideas, especially the change of the status of Confucianism caused by the "sun and moon withering".
It is an unchangeable fact that the Qing Dynasty has perished. However, whether the Qing Dynasty should die is another matter. Judging from the historical process, the Revolution of 1911 was contingent, while the Sichuan Railway Protection Movement and the Wuchang New Army Uprising were not inevitable. However, even if the political revolution did not happen, the ideological revolution was already going on. Even if the Qing Dynasty did not perish, its dominant political thought and academic thought had to undergo revolutionary changes, and its political structure and academic system had to undergo revolutionary changes to adapt to the new intellectuals and modern scholars.