The process school of motivation theory believes that it is a process to achieve organizational goals by meeting people's needs, that is, it is necessary to influence people's needs by setting certain goals, thus stimulating people's actions, including Fromm's expectation theory, Locke and Hughes' goal setting theory, Porter and Lawler's comprehensive motivation model, Adams' fairness theory, Skinner's reinforcement theory and so on.
Fromm's "expectation theory", the most representative, holds that the degree of motivation of a goal is influenced by two factors:
One is goal effectiveness, which refers to people's subjective judgment on how valuable it is to achieve this goal. If achieving this goal is valuable to people, people's enthusiasm will be high; On the contrary, the enthusiasm is low.
The second is expected value, which refers to people's subjective estimation of the possibility of achieving this goal. Only when people think that it is possible to achieve this goal, will they try to achieve it, so as to give full play to the incentive function of the goal to a greater extent; If people think that the possibility of achieving this goal is small or even impossible, then the incentive effect of the goal is small or even impossible.
After Fromm, American management scientists Locke and Hus put forward the "goal setting theory". To sum up, there are three main factors:
(1) Target difficulty. The goal is more difficult, and the easy-to-achieve goal lacks challenge and cannot arouse people's spirit of hard work, so the incentive effect is not great. Of course, unattainable goals can also be daunting, thus losing motivation. Therefore, the goal should be controlled at a level where the difficulty does not exceed the human capacity.
(2) the clarity of the goal. Goals should be clear and specific, such as "doing as well as possible" and "working hard", which are vague and abstract and have little incentive effect on people. Specific goals that can be observed and measured can make people clear the direction of struggle and their own gap, thus having better incentive effect.
(3) the acceptability of the goal. Only when employees accept organizational goals and coordinate with personal goals can goals play their due incentive function. Therefore, employees should be involved in the formulation of organizational goals, which can improve the acceptability of goals more than managers impose goals on employees, and make employees take achieving goals as their own business, thus improving the incentive effect of goals.
These researches on needs and goals have become the factors that must be considered in designing performance evaluation system, especially some requirements put forward by incentive process theory, which is of guiding significance for designing effective performance evaluation system.
Incentive theories of various schools.
Incentive theory is a summary of the principles and methods about how to meet people's needs and mobilize people's enthusiasm. The purpose of motivation is to stimulate people's correct behavior motivation, mobilize people's enthusiasm and creativity, so as to give full play to people's intellectual effects and achieve the greatest achievements. Since the twenties and thirties of this century, many foreign managers, psychologists and sociologists have put forward many incentive theories in combination with modern management practice. These theories can be divided into three categories according to their formation time and different aspects of research: behaviorism motivation theory, cognitive motivation theory and comprehensive motivation theory.
First, behaviorism incentive theory
In the 1920s, a behavioral psychology theory was popular in the United States, and its founder was Watson. According to this theory, the essence of management process is motivation, which induces people's behavior. Under the guidance of the "stimulus-response" theory, the task of the motivator is to choose a suitable set of stimulus, that is, incentive means, in order to arouse the corresponding response standards and rigid activities of the motivated.
Skinner, a new behaviorist, later put forward the theory of operant conditioning. According to this theory, the main means of motivating people can not only rely on stimulating variables, but also consider the existence of intermediate variables, that is, human subjective factors. Specifically, in terms of incentives, in addition to monetary incentives, we should also consider the needs of workers' subjective factors. According to the theory of new behaviorism, the content of incentive means should analyze people's material needs and spiritual needs from the perspective of social psychology, so that the satisfaction of individual needs is consistent with the realization of organizational goals.
The new behaviorism theory emphasizes that human behavior depends not only on the perception of stimulus, but also on the result of behavior. When the result of the behavior is beneficial to the individual, this kind of behavior will recur and play a role in strengthening motivation. If the result of an action is unfavorable to the individual, the action will be weakened or disappeared. Therefore, the use of reinforcement means such as affirmation, praise, reward or negation, criticism and punishment in education can directionally control or change learners' behavior, thus guiding them to reach the expected best state.
Second, cognitive motivation theory
Behaviour only depends on the mechanical response of adult nervous system to objective stimuli, which does not conform to the objective regularity of human psychological activities. For the occurrence and development of human behavior, we should fully consider human internal factors, such as ideology, interests, values, needs and so on. Therefore, these theories focus on the content and structure of human needs and how to promote human behavior.
Cognitive motivation theory also emphasizes that the purpose of motivation is to turn negative behavior into positive behavior, so as to achieve the predetermined goals of the organization and obtain better benefits. Therefore, in the process of motivation, we should also focus on how to transform and transform people's behavior. Skinner's operating condition theory and frustration theory also belong to this type of theory. According to these theories, human behavior is the result of interaction between external environment stimulus and internal thinking and understanding. Therefore, only by changing the external environment stimulus and changing the internal thinking and understanding can we achieve the purpose of changing people's behavior.
Third, the comprehensive incentive theory.
Behaviorist motivation theory emphasizes the importance of external motivation, while cognitive motivation theory emphasizes the importance of internal motivation. The comprehensive incentive theory is the synthesis, generalization and development of these two theories, which points out a more effective way to solve the problem of mobilizing people's enthusiasm.
The field dynamics theory put forward by psychologist Lei Wen is the earliest comprehensive motivation theory. This theory emphasizes that for the development of human behavior, it is the result of the interaction between individuals and the environment. The stimulation of the external environment is actually only the fuse, while human needs are the internal driving force. The direction of human behavior depends on the intensity of internal system requirements and the relationship between external leaders. If the internal demand is not strong, then no matter how strong the guidance is, it doesn't make much sense.
Porter and Lawler put forward a new comprehensive incentive model in 1968, which combines the external incentive of behaviorism with the internal incentive of cognitive school. In this model, there are variables such as effort, performance, personal quality and ability, personal perception, internal motivation, external motivation and satisfaction.
In this model, Porter and Lawler regard the incentive process as a unified process of interaction among external stimuli, personal internal conditions, behavior performance and behavior results. It is generally believed that only satisfaction can lead to performance. However, they emphasize that performance is the first way to get satisfaction, while reward is based on performance, and people's satisfaction with performance and reward in turn affects the future incentive value. The degree of people's efforts to a certain homework is determined by the incentive value obtained when completing the homework and the expected probability that individuals may get rewards after their efforts. Obviously, the higher the incentive value to an individual, the higher his expectation probability and the greater his efforts to finish his homework. At the same time, the result of human activities depends not only on the degree of personal efforts, but also on the quality and ability of individuals and their cognition of their own work.
Porter and Lawler's incentive model further analyzes the relationship between personal job satisfaction and activity results. They pointed out that job satisfaction depends on the consistency between the incentives obtained and the expected results. If the incentive is equal to or greater than the expected result, then the individual will be satisfied. If the connection between incentives and labor results is weakened, then people will lose confidence.
Types and application of incentive theory
There are three main types of incentive theories, namely, content-based incentive theory, process-based incentive theory and behavior modification incentive theory.
First, the content-based incentive theory and its application
Content-based motivation theory is a theory that studies the specific content of motivation reasons and factors that play an incentive role.
(1), the application of Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory in enterprise management.
① Only when low-level needs are partially met can high-level needs become an important determinant of behavior.
② High-level demand is more valuable than low-level demand, and people's demand structure is dynamic, developing and changing.
(2) Oldfer's ERG theory:
"ERG" theory is the abbreviation of survival-interrelation-growth need theory. According to Odefer, there are three types of employees' needs: survival needs (e), relationship needs (r) and growth needs (g). According to this theory, the less the needs of all levels are met, the more people are eager to get them; The more satisfied the lower demanders are, the more eager the upper demanders are. If higher-level needs are frustrated again and again, people will pursue the satisfaction of lower-level needs again. This theory not only puts forward the upward trend of satisfaction at the level of needs, but also points out the trend of setbacks to retrogression, which is very enlightening in management.
(3), McLelland's achievement needs theory:
McLelland believes that under the premise that people's survival needs are basically met, achievement needs, rights needs and gregarious needs are the three most important needs of people. The level of achievement needs plays a particularly important role in the development of a person and an enterprise. This theory defines achievement needs as the internal driving force to pursue Excellence and success according to appropriate goals.
According to this theory, achievement requires a strong sense of professionalism and likes an environment in which their ability to solve problems independently can be brought into play. In management, as long as we provide him with a suitable environment, it will give full play to its ability. People who have a strong sense of responsibility, are willing to undertake the required competition, can achieve a higher social status, and like to pursue and influence others.
The theory also holds that the need to integrate into others is people's desire to pursue others' acceptance and friendship. A strong desire to get others' approval, a high degree of obedience to group norms, loyalty and reliability.
(4) Herzberg's two-factor theory.
Herzberg believes that most of the reasons for employees' dissatisfaction are related to the working environment or working relationship, such as the company's policies, administrative management, the relationship between employees and superiors, wages, work safety and working environment. He found that if the above conditions do not reach the minimum acceptable level for employees, it will lead to employee dissatisfaction. However, having these conditions does not motivate employees. Herzberg called these uninspired external factors "health care factors". He also believes that most of the factors that can make employees feel very satisfied belong to the work content and the work itself, such as the sense of accomplishment, the recognition of work achievements by superiors, the challenge of the work itself and so on. The improvement of these factors can stimulate the enthusiasm and enthusiasm of employees. Herzberg called this factor "incentive factor". This is the "two-factor theory".
This theory tells us that managers should first pay attention to satisfying employees' "health factors" and prevent employees from slacking off, so that employees will not be dissatisfied. At the same time, they should pay attention to using "incentive factors" to give employees the opportunity to be satisfied as much as possible.
Second, the process-based incentive theory and its application
The motivation theory of process model is a theory to study the psychological process of human motivation from generation to final action. Its main task is to find out some key factors that play a decisive role in behavior, and to understand the relationship between them, so as to predict and control human behavior.
(1) frum's theory of hope;
Frum believes that the role of an incentive factor depends on two aspects: first, people's expectation of the possibility that the incentive factor can achieve; The second is the size of the incentive factors on their own valence. The product of motivation, etc. And that product of expect value and efficiency, i. e.:
Incentive force = expected value * valence
The so-called "hope" refers to the judgment of the probability of obtaining a certain result according to past experience.
The so-called "effectiveness" refers to the person's interest in this incentive factor, that is, the estimation of the value of the goal he wants to achieve.
When applying "hope" in management, we should pay attention to three points:
First, we should set goals scientifically, so that goals can give people hope, thus generating psychological motivation;
Second, it is necessary to raise expectations and raise employees' awareness of the meaning of the goal, which will improve efficiency;
Third, correctly handle the relationship between expectations and results to prevent employees from expecting too much and causing too much disappointment.
(2) Adams' theory of fairness:
"Equity theory" is a theory that studies the relationship between human motivation and perception. Adams believes that whether a person is satisfied with his remuneration depends not only on its absolute value, but also on social comparison and historical comparison and its relative value. When the two comparison results are equal, it is fair; Fairness can inspire people. On the contrary, it will make people feel unfair; Unfair produces tension, anxiety and dissatisfaction, which affects work enthusiasm.
When applying ADAMS theory in management, we should strengthen the ideological education of employees to prevent unhealthy trends such as belittling others, raising ourselves, stirring up right and wrong, influencing public opinion and creating contradictions in job evaluation.
Third, the theory of behavior correction motivation and its application
Behavior change theory is a theory that studies how to change and transform people's behavior to achieve the goal.
(1), Adams's frustration theory:
Because the goal can't be achieved and the motivation and needs can't be met, an emotional state will arise, which is "frustration".
Three necessary conditions for people to feel frustrated:
First, the goal of personal income expectation is important and strong;
Second, I personally think this goal is possible;
Third, there are insurmountable obstacles between the goal and reality.
People's behavior after setbacks:
According to the psychological characteristics of different people, the behavior after frustration is mainly divided into two categories;
First, adopt a positive and enterprising attitude, adopt a positive and adaptive attitude, reduce setbacks and meet needs.
Second, adopt a negative attitude, even a confrontational attitude, such as attack, indifference, fantasy, degradation, anxiety, stubbornness and compromise.
In the management work,
First, we should train employees to master the correct methods to overcome setbacks, educate employees to set lofty goals, and don't lose the motivation to move forward because of some immediate difficulties and setbacks.
Second, we should treat frustrated employees correctly, solve problems for them, safeguard their self-esteem and free them from the frustration situation as soon as possible.
Third, we should actively change the situation, avoid frustrated employees "touching the scene" and prevent mental illness and deviant behavior.
(2) Skinner's reinforcement theory:
According to psychology, the result of human behavior is counterproductive to motivation. If behavior is a good result, it can positively strengthen motivation, that is, it can strengthen and repeat people's behavior; If the result of behavior weakens motivation, it will negatively strengthen motivation and weaken or disappear human behavior.
When applying reinforcement theory to influence, strengthen or change employees' behavior, we should pay attention to the following methods:
First, we should adopt different strengthening methods according to the different needs of employees.
Third, the combination of rewards and punishments, mainly positive reinforcement.
(3), Hyde's attribution theory:
It is a theory about the logical combination of a certain behavior and its motivation, purpose, value orientation and other attributes.
Attribution type:
Attribution can be divided into two categories: one is situational attribution; The second is the attribution of personality tendency. Situational attribution is to attribute the root cause of personal behavior to external forces, such as environmental conditions, public opinion, enterprise equipment, work tasks, weather changes and so on. Attribution of personal tendency is to attribute the root cause of personal behavior to personal characteristics, such as ability, interest, personality, effort and so on.
In management work, when employees encounter setbacks in completing tasks, managers should know the attribution tendency of employees in time to help employees correctly sum up experiences and lessons and make attribution smoothly. Is to let employees win without arrogance, lose with grace, further strict with themselves and work harder.
Establishment and implementation of incentive mechanism
(A) the implementation of target incentives
1. Target Settings
(1) The goal should be specific.
(2) It is necessary to clarify the social value of the goal and link it with personal interests.
(3) The goal should be both difficult and possible.
(4) Let people who have achieved their goals participate in goal setting.
(5) There should be timely and objective feedback in the process of achieving the goal.
2. Management by objectives
(1) Set the overall goal.
(2) Be prepared for the organization.
(3) Make a personal plan.
(4) Evaluation of phased results.
(B) to create a corporate culture suitable for the characteristics of enterprises.
2 1 century will be an era full of changes, the scope of changes is getting bigger and bigger, and the pace is getting faster and faster, which requires the enterprise organization to change from a rigid mechanical model to a more flexible and adaptive organic model; The competition among enterprises has evolved from the competition of production efficiency to the competition of innovation rate, and the basic quality is the competition of enterprise culture. The traditional "imperative" leadership style is no longer suitable for the management of new "knowledge workers". To some extent, management is to mold people with a certain culture. Only when the corporate culture can truly integrate into each employee's personal values can they regard the corporate goals as their own. Therefore, managing with the culture recognized by employees can provide impetus for the long-term development of enterprises.
(C) the establishment and implementation of multi-track and multi-level incentive mechanism
Since the 1990s, people's demand for materials has become stronger and their self-awareness has become stronger. Based on these characteristics, how to formulate a new, reasonable and effective incentive scheme?
1. There is more space and more ways to encourage multiple runways according to the development characteristics of enterprises.
2. Encourage multiple runways, so that employees can truly feel at ease and work in the position that suits them best.
3. Find ways to understand what employees need.
In short, the incentive methods adopted should be flexible and diverse, and different systems should be formulated according to different jobs, different people and different situations, and it must not be a one-track system.
(D) Fully consider the individual differences of employees and implement different incentive mechanisms.
The purpose of motivation is to improve the work enthusiasm of employees. The main factors affecting work enthusiasm are: work nature, leadership behavior, personal development, interpersonal relationship, salary and welfare, and working environment, and the order of these factors is different for different enterprises. Sorting the influence of different factors on different types of enterprises;
It can be seen that enterprises should formulate incentive systems according to different types and characteristics, and individual differences must be taken into account when implementing incentive mechanisms.
Especially under the condition of market economy in Socialism with Chinese characteristics, we should creatively combine the spirit of 19 to create a new situation of human resource incentive management theory.