Benjamin Bloom published "The Classification of Educational Goals: Cognitive Field", thinking that there are six levels. Memory: the memory of specific facts; Comprehension: grasp the meaning of knowledge materials, organize facts, and find out the meaning of things; Application: applying information and rules to solve problems or understand the essence of things; Analysis: decompose the complex knowledge as a whole, understand the relationship between the parts, explain the causal relationship, and understand the essence of things; Synthesis: discover the interrelations and connections between things, thus generating new ideas and predicting possible results; Evaluation: judge or choose other methods according to standards.
Bloom put forward the problem that "the function of education is choice rather than development" and put forward the theoretical theory of "mastering learning". The content of this theory mainly includes the following aspects:
1, students have the necessary cognitive structure is the premise of mastering learning: Bloom is a cognitive psychologist. He believes that "the more cognitive conditions students have for each new learning task, the more active they will be in learning the subject". The original cognitive structure of students determines the input, understanding and acceptance of new knowledge, which has a great influence on the learning results and their subsequent learning. Therefore, he emphasized that students should have the necessary cognitive structure before learning.
2. Students' positive emotional characteristics are the internal factors of "mastering learning": Bloom believes that students' successful learning of a subject has a high correlation with their emotional characteristics. Those students with high learning motivation, great interest and initiative will learn faster and better than those who are not interested and unwilling to learn. Whether teachers can fully pay attention to and reasonably meet students' emotional needs in teaching is of great significance to the harmonious development of students. Teachers should try their best to make every student feel the peak learning experience and get the happiness of success. Because of success again and again, the desire to learn is strengthened, the motivation for achievement is gradually formed, and the internal driving force of learning will be greatly enhanced.
3. Feedback-correction system is the core of "mastering learning": Bloom pointed out: "The essence of mastering learning strategies is group teaching, supplemented by frequent feedback and individual correction help that each student needs." Every step of the teaching process must be evaluated to judge its effectiveness, and the problems in the teaching process should be fed back and adjusted to ensure that every student can get the special help he needs. Feedback correction is usually divided into four steps: first, at the end of each class, set aside about 10 minutes to check with several small topics prepared before class that highlight "goals" The method is flexible, including individual questions, collective answers, oral answers and written answers. The knowledge learned by the respondents is strengthened, and the listeners know where the mistakes are and how to remedy them. Secondly, a formative test is conducted at the end of each unit to highlight the key and difficult points stipulated in the "goal" and the new knowledge involved in this unit. Thirdly, according to the results of formative testing, individualized remedial teaching is carried out. The most effective method of individual make-up teaching is to divide students into study groups of four to five people according to their academic achievements, and the "master" will be the "master's little teacher, helping the master to deepen his understanding and help him find mistakes and correct them in time. Finally, the second formative test was conducted, and the students who failed to master the first test were given counseling and correction. The content is the topic that they made mistakes in the first test. The purpose is to get feedback information and find out how many people have mastered it after correcting it, and whether they can teach in the next unit.
Second, Bruner:
1 Learn and master the basic structure of the subject.
Bruner believes that the teaching content of primary and secondary schools in the United States at that time, influenced by Dewey's empiricism, unilaterally emphasized the importance of specific facts and personal experience and ignored the value of theoretical knowledge, which was not conducive to the development of students' intelligence. He advocates improving the academic level and abstract theoretical level of teaching content, so that students can learn and master the basic structure of the subject. No matter what subject we choose to teach, we must let students know the basic structure of the subject. The basic structure of a discipline, specifically, refers to the system of basic concepts, basic principles and rules of each discipline.
Bruner believes that learning the basic structure of a subject can have the following advantages: first, understanding the basic principles can make the subject easier to understand; Second, linking the learned knowledge with a perfect structure is conducive to the memory and maintenance of knowledge; Third, understanding the basic principles and concepts is conducive to the transfer and application of knowledge, so as to draw inferences from others and draw inferences from others. Fourthly, emphasizing the study of structure and principle can narrow the gap between high-level knowledge and low-level knowledge, which is conducive to the integration of education at all levels; Fifth, it can simplify the teaching content; Realistic and extremely rich teaching content can be simplified into a set of simple propositions and become something more economical and dynamic (basic structure).
Bruner believes that any subject has a fairly broad structure, and any facts, arguments, ideas and concepts related to the subject can be continuously incorporated into a unified structure. Especially in highly formalized disciplines such as natural science and mathematics, there are clearer basic structures to teach students.
2. Organize spiral courses
Because the subject structure is abstract and general, there are corresponding requirements when organizing courses centered on the subject structure. "In the teaching process, a course should return to these basic concepts repeatedly and take these basic concepts as the basis until students master a brand-new system to adapt to these basic concepts." Specifically, it is to break through the boundary of the same subject between primary and secondary schools and universities, organize spiral courses to a higher level, and gradually expand the scope of the subject content around the basic structure and deepen the difficulty.
The compilation of a good spiral course should start from three aspects: First, the arrangement of course content should be serialized. Second, unify the knowledge structure of the subject with the cognitive structure of children. Third, pay attention to the formation process of knowledge.
3 widespread use of discovery method
To master the basic structure of the subject, we should try our best to let students participate in the learning process of knowledge structure, which is the "discovery method" he advocated. Therefore, structuralism teaching theory and "discovery method" are closely linked.
The general steps of Bruner's discovery teaching are:
(1) Set the problem scenario. Ask questions and observe specific things with questions.
(2) Establish a hypothesis. Problem discussion, material reorganization, empirical connection, hypothesis.
(3) rise to the concept or principle.
(4) the ability to transform into life.
The theoretical basis of structuralist teaching theory comes from three aspects: genetic epistemology by Piaget, the theory of transformation-generation by Chomsky, and Bruner's cognition. Structural theory. Bruner believes that knowledge is an independent field that can be recognized. The motivation of people's pursuit of knowledge lies in the inherent laws of "experience" or "things", while the structure is "added" and shaped, formed and constructed by people. Knowledge can be composed of the best experts and scholars in various disciplines, and children's knowledge can be built on this basis.
The basic ideas of structuralism teaching theory, especially the "discovery method" advocated by Bruner, have been widely used in scientific practice. "Discovery method" is also called "discovery learning". Masao Hashimoto, a Japanese psychologist, defines it as: "Discovery learning aims at cultivating the method of inquiry thinking, takes basic teaching materials as the content, and enables students to learn through rediscovery steps." Therefore, discovery learning is different from the invention and creation of scientists, but rewrites the original discovery process from the perspective of education and becomes a way for students to learn step by step. "Discovery method" can stimulate students' intrinsic motivation, understand the process of problem discovery and master the basic structure of the discipline, so it is more effective in natural science disciplines such as mathematics.
Bruner advocates discovery method in teaching, and advocates guiding students to learn through their own active discovery. It is necessary to unify the process of learning knowledge with the process of exploring knowledge, so that students can develop their thinking ability such as induction and reasoning and master the method of inquiry thinking by experiencing the formation process of the concepts and principles they have learned. Its basic procedure is: identifying concepts-forming concepts-verifying concepts-analyzing thinking strategies.
(1) Identify the concept. Presenting materials to students, presenting concrete facts in the situation of inducing questions, guiding students to constantly generate hypotheses, and testing hypotheses by comparing existing experiences, or teachers guiding students to discuss around hypotheses, so that they can combine the acquired knowledge fragments from different angles, gradually form a unified cognitive structure, and make hypotheses determined; (2) form a concept. That is, the process of raising inaccurate assumptions to precise concepts, and the process of raising students' subjective, inaccurate and indiscriminate assumptions to the conceptual level; (3) Verify the concept. Teachers provide various examples to ask students to identify, confirm or deny their original assumptions, decide whether to correct their choice of concepts or attributes according to necessity, and cultivate their transfer ability through application; (4) Analytical thinking strategy. Students analyze their strategies for obtaining concepts. Students describe their thinking process, find out and remember how they think in this process.
The functions of this model are as follows: ① It can arouse students' initiative to explore and make them have intrinsic learning motivation, because when students face new and unknown situations put forward by teachers, their existing thinking modes are often disrupted and confused. In order to eliminate this confusion, there is a need to explore, so as to carry out positive thinking activities. ② It is conducive to the formation of migration ability and can cultivate students' creative attitude. Because this model urges students to respond to the hypothesis and master how to reorganize their information ability, it can cultivate students' creative spirit.
However, this model also has some limitations: ① This model is more suitable for mathematics and physics, but less suitable for art based on emotion. (2) Students are required to have certain knowledge and reserves of existing experience. The key of this model is to establish effective assumptions, requiring students to have certain knowledge and experience, and to find the first clue to solve problems from a strong sense of problems.
At first, Bruner practiced the idea of structuralism teaching theory mainly by reforming mathematics and science textbooks in primary and secondary schools. Accompanied by various practical problems in the United States, he gradually paid attention to the development of intelligence and ability after the 1950s, and in the 1970s, he devoted himself to the study that educational practice should better adapt to the society, thinking that teaching should "pay more attention to the knowledge related to social and commercial issues". Bruner's structuralist teaching theory has aroused strong repercussions around the world. In teaching theory, he made students master the basic structure of science through "discovery method", which caused the change of teaching concept and helped us correctly handle the relationship between imparting knowledge and developing ability. In teaching practice, it has promoted the worldwide educational reform. But it also has some shortcomings. From the perspective of curriculum theory, one-sided emphasis on the basic structure of the subject, the teaching content is too abstract, and the connection with the real life of society is not enough, so it is difficult for teachers to play their level and students to accept it. Coupled with the difficulty in finding the basic structure of the subject, it is even more difficult for students to find it. From the perspective of teaching methodology, too much emphasis on students' self-discovery and teachers' leading role leads him to blindly oppose mechanical memory and accept learning in teaching practice. Therefore, the practice of structuralism teaching theory in the United States is not very successful. In addition, his "three whatevers" view does not conform to the law of students' physical and mental development.