I. Dissemination of information

Chen Guisheng: Principles of Education (2nd Edition), East China Normal University Press, March 2000.

Second, reading notes

Preface to the first edition

As its name implies, "educational principle" is a subject to discuss educational affairs. ..... Its theoretical framework should be different from "pedagogy" which emphasizes application.

Since the founding of People's Republic of China (PRC), for a long time, Pedagogy not only discussed theoretical issues, but also involved specific issues. Pedagogy bears a heavy wing, which brings the problem of theoretical system. Simply put, pedagogy has not formed a strict theoretical system.

In recent ten years, the field of pedagogy research has shown a resurgence trend. As of July 199 1, the number of newly edited pedagogics with various titles is ... has reached 165. However, the media ... has a "similar" sigh.

Educational principles can be regarded as theoretical pedagogy. According to one analysis, the basic elements of a theory include: (1) concepts, (2) variables (concepts representing differences in phenomena), (3) statements (the relationship between concepts constitutes theoretical statements) and (4) formats (composed of theoretical statements), which are usually called "theoretical frameworks".

◇ Concept, ... usually reveals the connotation of the concept through definition ... In the past, when defining various basic concepts of education, there were often many provisions involving value orientation, which led to the lack of the connotation of the concept and the narrowness of the extension of the concept, which made the general concept lose its generality, but this did not seem to prevent people from referring to things that were not commensurate with its extension with the concept given a specific meaning.

◇ In the past, pedagogy inevitably contained many concepts to express the degree difference of educational phenomena, but it did not estimate and analyze the meaning of variables enough.

In the previous expressions of pedagogy, there seems to be confusion between fact judgment and value judgment, especially the phenomenon of replacing fact judgment with value judgment ... It is also common to list facts without logical argument and state norms regardless of feasibility. The analysis of educational phenomena and problems here will distinguish objective facts, logically possible facts, due state of affairs (value orientation) and feasible choices as much as possible, and take into account these four levels.

◇ (about format) ... The attempt here can be described as from the inside out, from small to large, and can also be regarded as this and that, from concrete to abstract. Because "inner" and "small" are the historical and logical starting points of education itself. From this argument, we can finally have a systematic understanding of education.

The framework of educational principles based on this idea is: from educational elements to educational process (micro), from simple educational process to complex educational process, from educational process to educational entity (meso), from educational entity to educational system (macro) (I); From the internal connection of education to the external connection of education, from the influence of the external connection of education on the internal connection of education to the characteristics of the education system itself (part two); Educational essence, educational purpose, educational composition, school function and family education function determined by the internal and external relations of education (3); From the general principles of education to the basic theoretical problems of education in the primary stage of socialism in China (IV).

Since ancient times, the organizational form of human education has been complicated and changeable. How to reveal the internal logic of the evolution of educational organizations?

The attempt here is:

Starting with the factor decomposition of the direct education process, this paper reveals the evolution process of the basic education form and the education process from simple to complex.

◇ Decompose the complex educational organization system into three levels (three levels), that is, the "direct education process" between educators and educatees; "Educational entity" based on various direct educational processes; An "educational system" composed of educational entities at all levels.

◇ Reveal the process of the occurrence and evolution of "direct education process", "educational entity" and "educational system", that is, from the occasional unorganized educational phenomenon to the emergence of educational organizational forms, which is the process of "formalization" of education; Formal education has never been finalized, and it is a process of "materialization" of education; It is the process of "institutionalizing" education that educational entities change from simple to complex, from detached state to forming a system.

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Simple elements of education

Decompose an object into a system until the simple elements (elements) that make up the system are analyzed, and then synthesize them on the basis of investigating each simple element separately, thus establishing a more rigorous theoretical system; Modern system theory describes the elements of the analysis object not from these elements themselves, but from their "position" in the whole, which enriches people's understanding and makes the theoretical research methods more perfect.

..... The first thing to study here is what elements are the "cells" of education.

..... as an important part of educational activities, these elements are called "simple elements of education".

1 previous attempts to investigate "simple elements of education"

Sorting out Rousseau (France, founder of modern educational thought,18th century), Herbart (Germany, educator,19th century), Gregory (America, educator, 65438+80s), Durkheim (France, founder of educational sociology, early 20th century) and Germany.

According to Marx's analysis, the simple elements of the labor process are: human purposeful activities, namely labor, labor materials (also known as labor means, mainly labor tools) and labor objects. Judging from the results of the whole labor process, the means of labor and the object of labor are the means of production, while labor itself is productive labor. This is the meaning of "simple labor process".

If the educational process is compared to the labor process, its simple elements should include: the purposeful activities of educators, the objects of education (educatees) and educational materials (equivalent to labor materials, but not equivalent to production materials) as the intermediary between educators and educational objects.

1. See Marx: Das Kapital, Volume 1, The Complete Works of Marx and Engels, Volume 23, People's Publishing House, Page 205, 1972.

Tolerance: It is meaningful to compare the education process with the labor process, or as a subordinate to the labor process. But how to understand the elements of the labor process defined by Marx? What is the difference between means of production and means of labor? In addition, in the process of education, "educator" did not appear as an element-did not obtain the status of an element. Is this reasonable? )

2. The development of educational process evolution logic

The complicated educational process is not a mechanical combination of various simple educational processes. Because the three elements of education are variables, each of them may undergo quantitative and qualitative changes, especially "educational materials" may be divided into several independent elements in the complicated educational process. Therefore, decomposing the simple elements that constitute education is only the starting point of educational research; Only by advancing along this line, decomposing "educational materials", revealing different types and levels of simple factor combination decomposition, and then developing the logical system of education, can we finally reveal the internal relations of various complex educational phenomena. Every step of this logical development is a test of the previous step. Therefore, what is a simple element of education was finally proved until a strict theoretical system was established. Before that, this was just a hypothesis.

Marx's unique method of investigating social and historical phenomena lies in "finding the key to understand all social history in the history of labor development". Labor is regarded as the logical starting point of historical materialism; He didn't stop at the simple labor process, and then he discovered the essence and level of productive labor. On the one hand, it depends on the combination of technology in the process of labor, that is, the combination of workers with certain skills and technologies and certain labor materials; On the other hand, it depends on the social combination of the labor process, that is, the social connection between workers (cooperation and division of labor). On this basis, we further investigate the social form realized by a certain labor process, that is, the relations of production, and take the sum of the relations of production as the social and economic foundation, and investigate the dialectical relationship between the economic foundation and the superstructure. It is the combination of technology and society of different nature and level of labor process that constitutes the basis of different historical types and levels of labor.

The most obvious difference between education and general material production labor is that the object of education is people rather than things, so the process of material production labor is much more complicated.

In order to investigate the complex process of education, we must start with the analysis of various elements that constitute education.

1. Engels: Feuerbach and the End of German Classical Philosophy, Selected Works of Marx and Engels, Volume 4, People's Publishing House, 1972, p. 254.

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Three elements of productivity: means of labor (mainly means of production), objects of labor and laborers.

Labor data is a thing or a system of things that convey people's role in the labor object (or nature as a general labor object). In this complicated labor data, Marx divided the production tools into the most important symbol of the labor productivity that people achieved.

The object of labor is all the objects that can be processed in the process of labor, which can naturally be said to be the sum total of possible labor objects in human society.

Based on the above concepts, the labor process can be understood as the production of labor objects by laborers using labor materials.

Laborer is the most important and active factor among the three elements of productivity, but what we are discussing now is not the factor of productivity, but the factor of labor process. Since it is a labor process, the subject is determined, and it is a labor process of workers. Therefore, among the factors in the labor process, it is not necessary to mention that workers are the factors in this process. Just like farming in agricultural labor, farming is a labor process. Obviously, it is farmers, not workers, who do this kind of labor. This point needs no special mention. So all the elements of farming can be mentioned, but it goes without saying that farmers are one of them.

It is possible and reasonable to compare the educational process to some kind of labor process. The term "educational process" itself has confirmed that workers are teachers, and the focus should be on labor materials and labor objects. Labor materials are educational materials, and the object of labor is obviously students.

The relationship between "educational subject" and "educational object"

Educational labor takes "people" as the object of education. As far as the motive factors of education are concerned, educators and educatees can be called "two poles" in the educational process. Understanding the educational process depends on examining the "polarity" of these two poles and their relationship.

As far as the occurrence of education is concerned, the object of education is the primary prerequisite for the existence of education. ..... As far as the occurrence of education is concerned, the educator is only a "tool" and the educated should be the master of education. ..... The actual educational process often shows that the educator is the master of the educational process and the educated becomes the "tool" of the educator.

In order to understand the relationship between the two poles in the process of education, we must study the polarity of educators and the polarity of educatees respectively, and the polarity of educators must start with the polarity of educatees.

1 Discovery of "Educational Object"

The history of education so far shows that although no one has ever denied that the object of education is "people", not everyone regards people as "educational objects" and not everyone regards people as "people".

◇ As an "educational object":

In medieval Europe, the Catholic theory of "original sin" prevailed for a long time ... people ... could only make amends through prayer. Therefore, it denies the necessity and possibility of people's education. Even if they have the opportunity to receive education, they will only receive religious education. (Press: Chen Shi's understanding of the Middle Ages here may still remain in the classic exposition. ) ..... In modern society, the possibility and right of universal education of human beings have finally been confirmed, and human beings are recognized as "teachable" materials. This can be called the discovery of educational objects.

◇ As the educational object of "people":

After realizing people's educational ability, the further problem is the position of the educated in the educational process. For a long time, mankind once regarded the passivity of the educated as the expectation (value orientation) of society. Rousseau realized the active position of the educational object in the educational process, which is another discovery about the educational object. This discovery has a far-reaching impact on later generations and has become the ideological pillar of "child-centrism" in the early 20th century.

2 "Educational subject" identification

Usually the so-called "leading role" of teachers actually refers to the "leading position" of teachers. Teachers' "leading position" and "leading role" are not the same thing. Educators are in a "dominant position" in the educational process because the purposeful activity of educators is education itself, and the educated join the educational process as "educational objects". ...

"Subject" and "object" are the same concept and both are relative words. Does the theory of "double subject" mean "no object" in the process of education? Perhaps the object is the element of "things" in the process of education, but the crux of the problem discussed here is the interpersonal relationship in the process of education, and the relationship between people and things is another problem; As for clearly affirming that the education process is "student-centered", I might as well ask, is the education process "teacher-centered"?

..... Students' autonomous activities that lead to students' changes and progress are not necessarily "educational activities", but can be purely personal self-education. So is "student"

Relation words

Without teachers, there are no students.

Although the relationship between "educational subject" and "educational object" has similarities from ancient times to the present, its polarity is not static. The concepts of "teacher" and "student" are different in ancient and modern times. For example, in ancient times, the so-called "a teacher for a day, a father for life", what's the point of repeating this old tune now? Besides, even the concept of "father" is changing. Because "educational subject" and "educational object" are connected by certain educational materials, their respective polarities and their relationship attributes have to change with the changes of the intermediary they rely on. Leaving aside the intermediary between teachers and students, educators and educatees, it is difficult to argue about "who is the subject" if it is not empty talk. Therefore, to investigate the polarity and relationship between "educational subject" and "educational object", we must first have a basic understanding of the composition of "educational materials".

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Decomposition of "Educational Materials"

Among the three elements of education, the purposeful activities of educators and the corresponding activities of educatees can only be realized through educational materials. In order to understand how the activities of "educational subject" and "educational object" are carried out through their intermediary, it is necessary to decompose the composition of "educational materials" ... It is the change of "educational materials" that marks the evolution of education. ..... "Educational materials" can also be called "the evolution of educational civilization"

measurer

"。 [Press: The original note is like this-as an excellent precedent of systematic research, after Marx decomposed the labor factors, he did not derive the labor process from the "purposeful activities of labor", but began to investigate the "purposeful activities of laborers" from the analysis of the labor process (only then did he discover how laborers lost their purpose in alienated labor); His investigation of the labor process began with the technical combination of workers and labor materials, and in this relationship, the technical ability demand of workers depends on the technical nature of labor materials. In this way, labor materials, especially tools, are regarded as "measuring tools for the development of human labor" and "indicators of social relations through which labor is carried out" (Das Kapital, vol. 1, The Complete Works of Marx and Engels, vol. 23, People's Publishing House, p. 204, 1972). In his view, from the perspective of productivity, the historical development of human labor is first marked by the historical order of the evolution of production tools and machines. Understanding this passage is very helpful to grasp this part of the content. ]

Because "educational materials" belong to the crystallization of human culture, the decomposition of "educational materials" should start with the decomposition of culture, revealing the process of refining and selecting from "cultural materials" to "educational materials".

1 Decompose the perspective of "textbook"

The word "culture" is vague;

The concept of "culture" as opposed to "nature"; (generalization)

As the concept of "culture" as opposed to "material culture", that is, spiritual culture; (Chinese meaning, according to: generally adopted)

As the concept of "culture" as opposed to "thought"; Press in a narrow sense: here refers to language, symbols, knowledge, technology, etc. )

As far as the evolution trend of the concept of "culture" is concerned, before the 20th century, the concepts of "culture" in narrow sense and "culture" in middle sense were more popular. Since the 20th century, the interpretation of "culture" began to focus on the whole social heritage. The main "culture" includes all kinds of explicit or implicit behavior patterns, which are learned or spread through the use of symbols.

Although educational materials include material equipment belonging to material culture, we are not going to discuss material equipment here, but focus on educational materials equivalent to "tools" and "materials" in labor materials. Therefore, when using the concept of "culture", the middle meaning of the word "culture" is generally adopted, that is, spiritual culture.

In order to facilitate the decomposition of educational materials, it is necessary to further analyze the basic components that constitute culture. The analysis is as follows for reference:

Expression (according to the expression here, it should be understood as "surface-description", and the following paragraphs are the same) various cultural elements constitute the cultural foundation of human formation. In this sense, they can all be used as the source of "teaching materials" (educational materials, but also educational materials). However, the purpose here is to analyze the composition of "educational materials" through the decomposition of culture, so as to explore a measure of educational development.

The expressive nature of various cultural elements is different. As a source of educational materials, the impact is very different. In order to reveal the educational significance of different cultural elements, it is necessary to classify the above cultural elements.

[1]: ... In the mechanism hierarchy system proposed by the so-called "value science", economic value (utility) is the lowest value, religious value ("sacredness") is the highest value, and the values in between are science (truth), morality (goodness) and art (beauty). (Reporter: This distinction of value levels is very enlightening.)

Dominant culture and recessive culture

Among various cultural elements, the behavior-action system belongs to the dominant part of culture and is called "display culture". Compared with recessive culture, it is a shallow culture. ..... People's behavior is called culture because it contains deep culture, and the significance of behavior-action system lies in the fact that deep culture is "implemented in behavior" to produce realistic power. But the essence of culture depends on implicit culture, not explicit culture.

However, in educational practice, the "behavior-action system" in "display culture" should not be ignored. ..... "Culture is an exact symbol to prove a person's progress" ([Su] Kalinin: On Communist Education and Teaching, People's Education Press, 1958, pp. 76-77. )

Entity culture and symbol culture

Media is an extension of human body. ..... the language symbol system belongs to the media in the sense of communication. ..... Among various cultural elements, only symbolic culture can be compared with tools in material production and labor.

Value standard culture and knowledge technology culture

Among various cultural elements, the deep culture with symbols as the medium can be divided into two categories: "value-norm system" and "knowledge-technology system". This is the so-called "dual structure system of spiritual civilization" in China. (Press: Dual Structure System of Spiritual Civilization-? )

("Seven Arts": grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy)

In ancient education, the "value-norm system" was abnormally infiltrated and the "knowledge-technology system" was wantonly degraded, which is no different in China and the West.

In the 17- 18 century, science has made great progress, but "it developed not because it occupied an important position in education, but only because it had no position." (Bernard: Social Function of Science, Commercial Press, 1986, p. 120. )

If the media is equivalent to the "tool-machine system" in material production, then the "knowledge-technology system" is equivalent to the material system in material production. ("knowledge explosion") not only provides unprecedented opportunities for education, but also poses a sharp challenge to the traditional education system.

The value of different orientations-normative culture

The "value standard system" is not only an integral part of the textbook, but also plays a unified role in the whole textbook. More importantly, it also involves the value judgment and value choice of education itself.

(Click: "Decompose the perspective of" textbook ") The content clues need to be chewed again. )

2 "Teaching Materials" Composition

The composition of educational materials can be roughly divided into five parts:

◇ Culture as an educational medium: refers to the kind of culture taken from symbolic culture.

◇ Culture as educational material: Anything that belongs to the "spiritual wealth" of culture has educational material.

Nature of.

◇ Culture as a means of education: a "behavior-action system" generally based on culture. Such as experimental means, modern audio-visual education means, and so on.

As a form of educational organization and activities, culture is also a "behavior-action system" based on culture. This kind of culture can also be called "institutional culture", which is different from material culture and spiritual culture. This kind of culture is of the same significance to education as the social combination of labor process is to material production labor.

◇ Culture as a place and equipment for educational activities: take it from material culture.

If so, "educational materials" can be divided into five types: "educational media, educational materials, educational means, educational organization forms and activities, educational venues and equipment". Educators' purposeful activities and educational objects are seven elements of a complex educational process. It can be seen that with the complexity of the educational process, the educational elements are gradually increasing. This is the "evolution route from simple to complex" of the textbook.

It is only after the educational process is complicated, especially after the use of audio-visual education means, that it is possible to copy the educational process, which opens up the prospect of simplifying the educational process. ..... In the process of copying education, the crux of the contradiction between the educational subject and the educational object shifts, and full guidance becomes a difficult problem in the educational process. This is another route in the evolution of teaching materials, that is, from complex to simple.

(press: this part of the discussion and analysis is quite exciting, and I am not tired of reading it. )

3 "Textbook": the "measuring instrument" of human education civilization

Cultural elements with different attributes have different functions in this culture, thus having different influences on educational activities. In order to show the essence of educational materials as a measure of human education civilization, the above analysis can be summarized as follows:

Among all kinds of cultural elements, only the language symbol culture, which is an extension of the human body, can be compared with people in material production.

Compared with the tool-machine system, this culture is the most decisive for the occurrence and development of educational activities. This effect is manifested in:

The occurrence of language symbols-the occurrence of informal education;

The emergence of written symbols-the emergence and development of formal education (especially schools);

With the emergence of mass media (especially electronic mass media), the status of materialized and institutionalized education in the whole education system is relatively declining, while the status of new non-materialized and non-institutionalized education is relatively rising, and human beings may get more educational opportunities.

Because the history of human civilization is basically the history of entity education (especially the history of schools), the information disseminated by education has the most profound influence on the nature and form of education in educational entities. This effect is manifested in:

Ancient education paid attention to spreading the culture of value norms;

Since modern times, the culture of value norms belongs to the rational culture of value norms, which is contained in the culture of knowledge and technology, so the education since modern times is mainly to convey the culture of knowledge and technology.

Among them, modern culture focuses on enlightenment, and modern education focuses on transmitting knowledge; Modern teaching culture pays more and more attention to application, so the proportion of knowledge education is relatively reduced and the status of technical education is relatively improved.

As a display culture, behavior-action culture is constantly changing under the influence of recessive culture and social material production conditions. The most important behavior-action culture change in the history of civilization is a leap from individual activities to socialized activities. Influenced by it, it is manifested in education as follows:

The era of individual labor-individual teaching (education) activities;

The era of socialized labor-the form of collective teaching (education) activities.

Among them, collective education replaced ancient individual education in modern times, while modern times tend to replace modern rigid collective education with individualized collective education or collectivized individual education.

It can be seen that educational materials composed of various cultural elements, like labor materials to material production, are a measure of human educational civilization.

4. From "cultural materials" to "educational materials" (excerpts from "educational materials")

Education is chosen according to the differences in the composition of various cultures: generally speaking, the choice of recessive culture is more important than the choice of dominant culture; In the recessive culture, the choice of value standard culture is more important than the choice of knowledge technology culture; The choice of entity culture is more important than the choice of symbol culture; ……

The above order shows that the choice of various cultural elements in education is important, and the choice of value standard culture is the most important.

(About the culture with educational value obtained through three screenings)

◇ Choose "culture with cultural value" from general culture;

The distinction between truth, goodness, beauty and falsehood, ugliness, usefulness and uselessness, essence and dross is both absolute and relative. )

◇ Choose "a culture that meets certain social needs" from cultures with cultural value;

In a class society, cultural choice is not immune from the influence of traditional cultural values, but this influence is generally filtered out by class interests. The culture absorbed by the education system of a certain society mainly reflects the fundamental interests of the ruling class (at least it does not conflict with it, or its conflict does not reach a sharp level). ]

◇ Choose "culture suitable for education process" from valuable cultures suitable for specific social needs.

(Because cultural materials are originally formed gradually from people's practice, once an objective and formal culture is formed, it is out of touch with the objects that did not participate in the process of cultural creation. Only when the educated have experienced the process of cultural creation and integrated it into their own personality, that is, the culture truly internalized by them, can it be called a culture with educational value; Only through the special choice and refined culture of educators can the educated be internalized. )

Non-mainstream culture often affects the educational object outside the educational process, even in the educational process.

5. Master the subject of "teaching materials"

Speaking of the relationship between the three elements in the education process, because "educational materials" belong to the material elements in the education process, just like a machine with good performance, without the actual operation of workers, just like a pile of scrap iron. If advanced culture is not mastered by educators and applied to the education process, it still does not belong to the real "educational" materials. Needless to say, the "educational materials" mastered and used by the educated only have educational influence when the educated are internalized; However, any educational process is not an isolated activity process, but a series of purposeful and planned activities in an educational entity, which is only the basic unit of the educational system, and even the educational system is a subsystem of the social-cultural system. In this way, there is also a question of who is the subject of controlling the "teaching materials".

On the whole, "educational materials" exist as an objective premise outside the direct education process, but they are all possible scope and conditions of "natural" and actual education process, and are the intermediary between "educational subject" and "educational object". The "educational subject" should first be the "subject" to control the "educational materials". ..... In order to reveal the evolution of the relationship between subject and object of education under the influence of educational materials, it is first necessary to examine the changes of educational organizations and the formation of institutionalized education.