A. Modern S-R psychologists not only use reinforcement to explain the occurrence of operational learning, but also use reinforcement to explain the reasons for motivation. It is believed that there is no difference between motivation and learning behavior, and both can be explained by reinforcement. Why people have a certain behavioral tendency depends entirely on strengthening the strong connection between this behavior and stimulation.
B research shows that teachers' criticism and praise will affect students' grades. In fact, the strengthening effect of teacher praise is restricted by many factors.
C. For example, the teacher said to the students, "Work hard! I know you can do it well if you work hard. " For those students who find it difficult to complete the task, these words are an encouragement or reinforcement; For those students who finish their study tasks easily, this is actually similar to punishment, because the teacher's words mean that they must make special efforts to complete the tasks.
D As educators, we need to pay attention to the fact that it is often difficult to infer students' motives only from their behaviors, because there may be many different motives that affect students' behaviors.
2. Need hierarchy
A. Maslow emphasized the role of need when explaining motivation. He believes that all actions are meaningful and have their own special goals, which come from our needs.
B Different people have different needs, and these needs will change with time and other factors, which is why two different people will have different behaviors in the same situation, and the same person will have different behaviors at different times. Demand affects people's behavior and direction.
C Maslow divides human needs into seven categories, namely, physiological needs, security needs, belonging and love needs, respect needs, knowledge and understanding needs, aesthetic needs and self-realization needs. He defined the first four kinds of demand as the lack demand, and the last three kinds of demand as the growth demand.
D. Before pursuing higher-level needs, lower-level needs must be at least partially met.
E. Generally speaking, however, the most important lack in schools is love and self-esteem. To make students creative, we must first make students feel that teachers are fair, love and respect themselves, and will not be laughed at and punished for their mistakes.
F this theory combines external motivation and internal motivation to consider the promotion of behavior, which has certain scientific significance. However, people's own interests and curiosity are ignored in learning, and some learning activities are not necessarily stimulated and caused by external motives.
3. Self-efficacy theory
A. Self-efficacy refers to people's subjective judgment on whether they can successfully achieve an achievement. This concept was first put forward by Bandura.
B. Bandura pointed out in his motivation theory that human behavior is influenced by the results and antecedents of behavior. The result factor of behavior is usually called reinforcement, but he believes that without reinforcement, you can get relevant information and form new behaviors. And strengthen the motivation that can stimulate and maintain behavior to control and regulate human behavior.
C Bandura believes that the probability of behavior is due to people's expectation of the next reinforcement (efficiency expectation) after realizing the dependence between behavior and reinforcement.
D the traditional concept of expectation only refers to the expectation of the result, but he thinks that the expectation of the result refers to people's speculation that a certain behavior will lead to a certain result. Efficiency expectation refers to people's speculation or judgment on whether they can carry out certain behavior, that is, people's speculation on their own behavior ability. It means whether people are confident that they can successfully implement actions that bring about certain results. When a person is convinced that he has the ability to carry out an activity, he will have a high sense of self-efficacy and will carry out that activity.
E. The main factors influencing the formation of self-efficacy are:
A. the success or failure experience of one's own behavior. Generally speaking, successful experience will raise performance expectations, while repeated failures will lower performance expectations. However, the influence of successful experience on efficacy expectation is also influenced by individual attribution style.
B. Alternative experience. The key is the consistency between observers and role models.
C. verbal persuasion. It is widely used because it is simple and effective, but the effect of inexperienced verbal persuasion is not consolidated.
D. emotional stimulation. A high level of arousal will reduce performance and affect self-efficacy. When people are not bothered by aversion to stimuli, they can expect success more.
F. Bandura and others also pointed out that self-efficacy has the following functions:
A. decide people's choice of activities and their persistence in them.
B. Affect people's attitudes when facing difficulties
C. Performance that affects the acquisition of new behaviors and existing behaviors
D. affect the mood during the activity.
G. Self-efficacy theory has overcome the tendency of traditional psychology to emphasize desire over knowledge over emotion, and it is of great scientific value to study people's motivation more and more in combination with people's needs, cognition and emotions. However, a relatively complete and unified theoretical framework has not yet been formed.
4. Achievement motivation theory
A Murray defines achievement needs as: overcoming obstacles, exerting talents and trying to solve a difficult problem as soon as possible.
B Atkinson believes that the initial motivation of high achievement comes from the family or cultural group in which children live, especially the intention of early education and training. In other words, achievement motivation involves the emotional conflict between the expectation of success and the fear of failure. If Ts is used to express the tendency to pursue success, it is determined by the following three factors: ① Achievement needs (success motivation) MS; (2) the possibility of success of this task PS; ③ The induced value of success is. It can be expressed as:
Ts=Ms×Ps×Is
C. the factors that determine the fear of failure are similar to those that determine the hope of success, that is, the tendency to avoid failure Taf is a function of the product of the following three factors: ① the motivation to avoid failure, that is, the shame energy experienced by failure; ② Possibility of PF failure; (3) Negative failures are:
Taf=Maf×Pf×If
The ultimate achievement motivation is the intensity of striving for success minus the intensity of avoiding failure.
Ta=(Ms×Ps×Is)-(Maf×Pf×If)
E. If a student's motivation to succeed is greater than that to avoid failure, in order to explore a problem, they will increase their desire to solve this problem after encountering certain failures, and if success is too easy, their motivation will be reduced.
F research shows that such students are most likely to choose a task with a success probability of about 50%, because this choice can provide them with the greatest practical challenge.
G. mcclelland's experimental research confirmed that students who pursue success will choose a place that is moderate from the stake, while children who avoid failure will choose a place that is very close or far from the stake. McClellan explained: The child who pursues success chooses a challenging task, but at the same time it also guarantees a certain possibility of success. Therefore, he chose a position with a moderate distance from the stake. Children who avoid failure are not concerned with the choice between success and failure, but try their best to avoid failure and the negative emotions associated with it. So either it is close to the stake and easy to succeed, or it is far away from the stake and there is almost no possibility of success. This is beyond anyone's reach, so it will not bring negative emotions.
H. The level of achievement motivation is closely related to the quality and quantity of completing academic tasks. People with high achievement motivation can still maintain good performance without external control. In the process of failure, people with high achievement motivation are more persistent in tasks than those with low achievement motivation. In addition, successful pursuers have strong self-confidence, high level of achievement motivation and internal attribution.