He also proved the area theorem of black holes. Hawking's life is very legendary, and he is one of the most outstanding scientists in history in scientific achievements. His position is the highest professorship in the history of Cambridge University, that is, Lucasson Professor of Mathematics who was once held by Newton and Dirac. He holds several honorary degrees and is a member of the Royal Society.
Related works:
As the undisputed authority of cosmology, the sequel of A Brief History of Time has always attracted readers with its research results and life. The sequel to A Brief History of Time is for readers who want to know more about Professor Hawking's life and his theory. The book describes Professor Hawking's life course and research work in the form of frank and sincere personal interviews, and shows the real "people" behind the huge theoretical framework. This book is not an ordinary oral history, but an extremely touching and charming portrait and description of one of the greatest thoughts of mankind in the twentieth century. For non-professional readers, this book is undoubtedly an opportunity for them to enjoy the fruits of human civilization and a source of valuable inspiration.
Hawking's Lecture-Black Hole, baby universes and Others is a collection of articles and speeches written by Hawking during1976-1992 * *13. This paper discusses the birth of baby universes caused by virtual time and black holes, and the efforts of scientists to seek a completely unified theory, and puts forward unique views on free will, the value of life and death. [MRMY.NET Collection]
The essence of time and space was expressed in a complete mathematical form 80 years ago, and the basic principles of quantum theory appeared 70 years ago. However, can these two most accurate and successful theories in the whole physics be unified in a single quantum gravity? Two of the most famous physicists in the world debated this question. This book is based on six speeches and final debates given by Hawking and Penrose at Cambridge University.
The charm of the future begins with stephen william hawking's prediction of the next billion years of the universe and ends with Don Kubit's understanding of the final judgment. It introduces the development of prediction and the methods we use to predict the future today. The text of the book is easy to understand. The author expounds his own views and answers some interesting questions, which is very interesting to read.
The Universe in the Shell is Professor Hawking's most important work after A Brief History of Time. In this book, Professor Hawking once again takes us to the forefront of theoretical physics. In Professor Hawking's world, truth is even more dazzling and colorful than fantasy. Professor Hawking explained the principles that restrict our universe in popular language, and with his unique enthusiasm, invited us to travel together in the universe for extraordinary time and space travel.
A brief history of time (written in 1988)
This book is Hawking's masterpiece. The author's imagination is rich, his ideas are wonderful, his language is beautiful and his words are meticulous, which is even more surprising. The outside world, the future changes are so magical and wonderful. This book has a cumulative circulation of 25 million copies and has been translated into nearly 40 languages.
In this book, Hawking will try to outline the history of the universe in our mind-from the Big Bang to the black hole. In the first lecture, he will briefly review the past ideas about the universe and explain how we get the current image. This may be called the history of the universe.
The second lecture will explain why both Newton's and Einstein's theories of gravity have concluded that the universe cannot be static, and it must either expand or contract. This in turn means that there must be a moment between the first 20 billion years and the first 654.38+0 billion years when the density of the universe is infinite, resulting in the so-called Big Bang. This may be the beginning of the universe.
The third class will talk about black holes. A black hole is formed when a huge planet or a larger celestial body is attracted by its own gravity and collapses. According to Einstein's general theory of relativity, any fool who is stupid enough to fall into a black hole will disappear forever, and they will never escape from the black hole again. Their history will reach a singularity and a painful end. However, general relativity is a classical theory-that is, it does not consider the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics.
The fourth lecture will talk about how quantum mechanics makes energy leak from black holes. Black holes are not as black as people describe.
The fifth lecture will apply the idea of quantum mechanics to the Big Bang and the origin of the universe. This leads to the hypothesis that space-time may be limited, but there is no edge. This may be similar to the surface of the earth, but it has two more dimensions.
The sixth lecture will explain how this new boundary condition explains this problem: although the laws of physics are time symmetric, why is the past so different from the future?
Finally, the seventh lecture will talk about how we try to find a unified theory, which can include the interaction in quantum mechanics, gravity and all other physics. If we do this, we will really understand the universe and our place in it.
This book is not an ordinary oral history, but an extremely touching and charming portrait and description of one of the greatest thoughts of mankind in the twentieth century. For non-professional readers, this book is undoubtedly an opportunity for them to enjoy the fruits of human civilization and a source of valuable inspiration. Hawking's Lecture-Black Hole, baby universes and Others is a collection of articles and speeches written by Hawking during1976-1992 * *13. This paper discusses the birth of baby universes caused by virtual time and black holes, and the efforts of scientists to seek a completely unified theory, and puts forward unique views on free will, the value of life and death. After three years of study, which was not a huge workload, he obtained a first-class honorary degree in natural science, and then went to Cambridge University to study cosmology, when there was no cosmology major at Oxford University. Although he hoped to do research with Fred Hoyle in Cambridge at that time, his tutor was Dens Scarma. After receiving his doctorate, he became a researcher and later a professor at Gonville and Caius College.
1992 The film of the same name cost 3.5 million pounds. Hawking firmly believes that the basic ideas about the universe and the origin of life can be expressed without mathematics, and the world should be able to understand his profound theory through the audio-visual media such as movies. This book is a popular reading about exploring the nature of time and the frontier of the universe. It is the most important classic work about the scientific thought of the universe, which has changed the concept of the universe. As the undisputed authority of cosmology, the sequel of A Brief History of Time has always attracted readers with its research results and life. The sequel to A Brief History of Time is for readers who want to know more about Professor Hawking's life and his theory. The book describes Professor Hawking's life course and research work in the form of frank and sincere personal interviews, and shows the real "people" behind the huge theoretical framework.
Award winning:
The second son, Timothy, was born in 1979/ and was appointed Lucas Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University/published Review of General Relativity: Commemorating Einstein's Centennial Birthday.
198 1 year, he attended the Vatican cosmology conference, announced the publication of borderless ideas/hyperspace and supergravity/was awarded the Senior Knight Order of the British Empire.
He fell ill in Switzerland on 1985/underwent tracheotomy and lost his language ability. He published A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to the Black Hole in 1988 with a computer with a sound generator/and won the Wolf Foundation Award.
1989 was awarded the title of honorary knight of the British Empire.
1990 Divorce with his wife
199 1 time brief history release.
1993 "black hole and baby universes" and other papers were published.
200 1 10 Another masterpiece, The Universe in the Shell, was published.
In 2007, the children's science fiction novel George's Secret of the Universe, co-authored by Hawking and Lucy Gigord, was first published in France on September 6th. This book is the first children's book written by Hawking, in which Hawking explained his theory about time and the universe to children.
If Luger's disease is diagnosed now, then maybe Hawking is not a giant now.
After feeling:
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He is one of the great men who enjoy international reputation in this century. He was in his fifties and was born on the anniversary of Galileo's death. He is a professor of applied mathematics and theoretical physics at Cambridge University, and also the most important general relativity and cosmologist in contemporary times. In the 1970s, he and Penrose proved the famous singularity theorem, for which they both won the Wolf Prize in Physics of 1988. He is therefore known as the most famous scientific thinker and the most outstanding theoretical physicist in the world after Einstein. He also proved the area theorem of black holes.
Hawking's life is very legendary, and he is one of the most outstanding scientists in history in scientific achievements. His position is the highest professorship in the history of Cambridge University, that is, Lucasson Professor of Mathematics held by Newton and Dirac. He holds several honorary degrees and is a member of the Royal Society. He suffers from Luger's disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and has lived in a wheelchair for 40 years. However, he was physically and mentally disabled and turned it into an advantage, overcoming his disability and becoming a supernova in the international physics community. He can't write or even read clearly, but he transcends relativity, quantum mechanics and the Big Bang theory and enters the "geometric dance" to create the universe. Although he was so helpless in a wheelchair, his thoughts traveled brilliantly in the vast space and time, and solved the mystery of the universe.
Professor Hawking is a modern popular science novelist. His masterpiece is A Brief History of Time written in 1988, which is an excellent astronomical popular science novel. The author's imagination is rich, his ideas are wonderful, his language is beautiful and his words are meticulous, which is even more surprising. The outside world, the future changes are so magical and wonderful. This book has a cumulative circulation of 25 million copies and has been translated into nearly 40 languages. 1992 The film of the same name cost 3.5 million pounds. Hawking firmly believes that the basic ideas about the universe and the origin of life can be expressed without mathematics, and the world should be able to understand his profound theory through the audio-visual media such as movies. This book is a popular reading about exploring the nature of time and the frontier of the universe. It is the most important classic work about the scientific thought of the universe, which has changed the concept of the universe. As soon as this book was published, it caused great repercussions all over the world. A Brief History of Time is a landmark book for readers who prefer words to equations. She is good at being a contributor to human thoughts. This is a book that pursues knowledge infinitely and explores the essence of time and space.
As the undisputed authority of cosmology, the sequel of A Brief History of Time has always attracted readers with its research results and life. The sequel to A Brief History of Time is for readers who want to know more about Professor Hawking's life and his theory. The book describes Professor Hawking's life course and research work in the form of frank and sincere personal interviews, and shows the real "people" behind the huge theoretical framework. This book is not an ordinary oral history, but an extremely touching and charming portrait and description of one of the greatest thoughts of mankind in the twentieth century. For non-professional readers, this book is undoubtedly an opportunity for them to enjoy the fruits of human civilization and a source of valuable inspiration.
Hawking's Lecture-Black Hole, baby universes and Others is a collection of articles and speeches written by Hawking during1976-1992 * *13. This paper discusses the birth of baby universes caused by virtual time and black holes, and the efforts of scientists to seek a completely unified theory, and puts forward unique views on free will, the value of life and death.
The essence of time and space was expressed in a complete mathematical form 80 years ago, and the basic principles of quantum theory appeared 70 years ago. However, can these two most accurate and successful theories in the whole physics be unified in a single quantum gravity? Two of the most famous physicists in the world debated this question. This book is based on six speeches and final debates given by Hawking and Penrose at Cambridge University.
The charm of the future begins with Hawking's prediction of the next billion years of the universe and ends with Don Kubit's understanding of the final judgment. It introduces the development of prediction and the methods we use to predict the future today. The text of the book is easy to understand. The author expounds his own views and answers some interesting questions, which is very interesting to read.
Hawking's life:
1942 65438+/kloc-0 was born in Oxford, England on October 8th.
1962, he completed a degree course in physics at Oxford University and transferred to Cambridge University for postgraduate study. 1963 Hawking was diagnosed with motor neuron disease.
1965 was awarded the doctorate. His research shows that the mathematical equation used to explain the collapse of black holes can also explain the expansion of the universe from a point.
Hawking studied the characteristics of 1970 black hole. He predicted that the radiation from black holes (now called Hawking radiation) and the surface area of black holes would never decrease.
1974 was elected as a member of the Royal Society. He went on to prove that black holes have temperature, black holes emit thermal radiation, and gasification will lead to mass loss.
Lucas was a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University from 65438 to 0980 (isaac newton once held this position).
A Brief History of Time was published in 1988 and became a best seller of quantum physics and relativity.
1996 Continue to work in Cambridge University.
Hawking has a famous saying:
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1. When you face the possibility of death, you will realize that life is precious and you have a lot to do.
2. "Which came first, the chicken or the egg?
3. Does the universe have a beginning? If so, what happened before that?
4. Where did the universe come from and where will it go? "
5. There is hope when you are alive.
6. Is there an end to time?
I have noticed that even those who claim that "everything is predestined and we can't change it" will look around before crossing the road.
8. Scientists and prostitutes make money by doing what they like.
9. If a person is physically disabled, he must never be mentally disabled.
10. Life is unfair. No matter what your situation is, you can only go all out.
Approach and landing simulator; Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
"Frostbite" is the common name of a group of motor neuron diseases (M.N.D), and the main type is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (A.L.S), commonly known as "frostbite", because it is characterized by the gradual atrophy of muscles and the gradual freezing of the body. Because there is no specific medicine at present, it ranks as the five major chronic diseases in the world along with cancer, AIDS and other diseases.
pathogenesis
1. Genetic factors: 5%- 10% of patients are hereditary, which is called familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (FALS). Adult type is autosomal dominant inheritance, while young type is autosomal dominant or recessive inheritance, which is difficult to distinguish from sporadic cases in clinic. At present, genetic studies have confirmed that the autosomal dominant genotype is related to the mutation of copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (SODL) gene. The mutant gene is located in the long arm of chromosome 2 1 (2 1q22. 1-22.2), and the autosomal recessive genotype is located in 2q33-q35, but only 20% of FALS patients have these gene mutations.
2. The etiology and pathogenesis of sporadic cases are still unclear, and the exact environmental risk factors have not been found, which may be related to the following factors.
(1) Poisoning factors: excitatory neurotransmitters such as glutamate may be involved in neuronal death in the pathogenesis of ALS, which may be caused by the decrease of glutamate uptake transported by glutamate transporters in astrocytes. It is found that the loss of transport function in some patients is caused by abnormal connection of transporter mRNA transcripts in motor cortex. For this excitotoxicity, SODl enzyme is one of the cellular defense systems, which can detoxify free radical superoxide anion. Familial cases may lead to glutamate excitotoxicity and ALS due to SODl mutation. In addition, plant toxins such as cassava poisoning, lack or accumulation of trace elements, excessive intake of aluminum, manganese, copper, silicon and other elements, and reduction of neurotrophic factors may all be related to pathogenicity.
(2) Immune factors: Although many antibodies and immune complexes have been detected in the serum of patients with MND, such as anti-thyroxine antibody, GMl antibody and L-type calcium channel protein antibody, there is no evidence that these antibodies can selectively target motor neurons. At present, MND is not considered as an autoimmune disease of the nervous system.
(3) Virus infection: Because both MND and acute poliomyelitis invade motor neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, and a few polio patients later develop MND, it is speculated that MND is related to chronic infection of poliomyelitis or poliovirus. However, no virus or related antigens and antibodies were found in cerebrospinal fluid, serum and nerve tissue of ALS patients.
Under the microscope, degeneration and decrease in the number of cells in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, the motor nucleus of the posterior trunk group and the pyramidal cells in the motor area of the cerebral cortex were observed. The degeneration of cervical spinal cord anterior horn cells is the most significant, and it is the most commonly involved site in the early stage. The involved motor neurons can be seen deep staining and concentration, lipofuscin deposition in cytoplasm and astrocyte proliferation. Motor axon degeneration and secondary demyelination in the anterior root and brain stem of spinal cord lead to denervation and muscle fiber atrophy. The denervated muscle can restore innervation by sprouting the distal branches of the distal motor nerve. The loss of cortical motor neurons leads to the thinning of corticospinal tract and corticobulbar tract. The remarkable feature of this disease is the selective death of motor neurons. Hypoglossal nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve and accessory nerve are most often involved, while the motor nucleus of extraocular muscle and parasympathetic neurons innervating bladder and rectal sphincter are generally not involved.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is the most common type of MND. Anterior horn cells of spinal cord, motor nucleus and pyramidal tract in the posterior group of brain stem were all involved. No matter whether the upper motor neurons or the lower motor neurons are involved at first, the upper motor neurons and the lower motor neurons in the limbs and medulla oblongata are damaged at last. (1) Most of them develop after the age of 40, with more males than females. The first symptom is usually poor finger movement and weak strength, and then the small muscles of the hand, such as thenar, thenar and earthworm, atrophy and gradually develop to the muscles of the forearm, upper arm and scapula, and the atrophied muscles appear coarse muscle fasciculation; Extensor muscle weakness is more obvious than flexor muscle, the anterior horn cells of neck enlargement are seriously damaged, the tendon reflex of upper limbs is reduced or disappeared, and both upper limbs appear at the same time or several months apart. At the same time or later, spastic paralysis of both lower limbs, scissors gait, increased muscle tension, hyperreflexia of tendon and babinski's sign appeared, and a few cases started from both lower limbs and gradually expanded to both upper limbs; (2) Bulbar paralysis usually occurs in the late stage, even if the brain stem function is seriously damaged, the extraocular muscles are not affected and the sphincter is not involved; (3) There may be subjective sensory abnormalities such as numbness and pain, but there is no objective sensory disorder even in the late stage of the disease; (4) The course of the disease continued to progress, and eventually he died of respiratory muscle paralysis or complicated with respiratory infection; The survival time of the disease is several months, and most of the elderly are 10 years old, with an average of 3-5 years.
In 2006, a research team composed of German, American and Canadian experts discovered protein, which caused the "gradual freezing disease" known as one of the five terminal diseases. This achievement has been published in the latest issue of the American journal Science.
The medical name of "gradually frozen person" is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which is a motor neuron disease. Patients with "gradual freezing" often get sick after 40 years old, their muscles gradually shrink, they have difficulty swallowing and breathing, and they gradually lose their ability to take care of themselves.
Manuela Neumann, an expert from Ludwig-maximilian University in Munich, and others found that the accumulation of protein TDP-43 in patients' brains would lead to nerve cell failure, thus causing diseases. The researchers hope that this discovery will help to develop a treatment for "gradual freezing".
Patients with "gradually frozen people" are called sober "vegetative people", and the World Health Organization ranks them as five terminal diseases together with cancer and AIDS. Patients with "gradually frozen people" usually live for 2 to 5 years and eventually die of respiratory failure. There is no radical cure at present.
According to the legend of Boshongo people in Central Africa, at first there was only darkness, water and the great Bumba God. One day, Bamba had a stomachache and threw up in the sun. The sun scorched some water and left the land. He still has a stomachache. He spit out the moon and stars, then spit out some animals, such as leopards, crocodiles, turtles, and finally people.
This creation myth, like many other myths, tries to answer the question we all want to ask: Why are we here? Where do we come from? The general answer is that the origin of human beings occurred in a relatively recent era. Mankind has made continuous progress in knowledge and technology. In this way, it can't exist for that long, otherwise, it should make greater progress. This should have been clear long ago.
Aristotle: The universe has no beginning.
The universe has existed for an infinite time.
For example, according to Bishop Arthur's Genesis, the creation of the world was set at 9: 00 a.m. on October 23rd, 65438 BC. On the other hand, the natural environment such as mountains and rivers has not changed much in people's life cycle. So people usually regard them as a constant background. Either it has existed as an empty landscape for infinite time, or it was created at the same time as human beings.
But not everyone likes the idea that the universe has a beginning. For example, Aristotle, the most famous Greek philosopher, believes that the existence of the universe is infinite. What is eternal is more perfect than what is created. He pointed out that the reason why we see development in this situation is because floods or other natural disasters have repeatedly restored civilization to its embryonic stage. Believing in the eternal motivation of the universe is to avoid resorting to the intervention of God's will, thus creating the universe and starting to run. On the contrary, people who believe that the universe has a beginning regard the beginning as the argument for the existence of God and regard God as the first cause or motive force of the universe.
Time is meaningless before the beginning of the universe.
Time is absolute, from the infinite past to the infinite future.
If people believe that the universe has a beginning, then the obvious question is, what happened before the beginning? What was God doing before he created the universe? Is he preparing hell for people who ask such questions? German philosopher Immanuel Kant is very concerned about whether the universe has a beginning. He thinks that whether the universe has a beginning or not will cause logical contradictions or antinomy. If the universe has a beginning, why wait for it indefinitely? He called it a theme. On the other hand, if the universe has existed for an infinite time, why does it take an infinite time to reach this stage? He called it the opposite. No matter the topic or the antithesis, it is based on Kant's assumption that almost everyone does so, that is, time is absolute, that is, time goes from the infinite past to the infinite future. Time has nothing to do with the universe. In this context, the universe may or may not exist.
Today, in the hearts of many scientists, this picture is still maintained. However, in 19 15 Einstein put forward his revolutionary general theory of relativity. In this theory, space and time are no longer absolute, nor are they the fixed background of events. On the contrary, they are power, and the matter and energy in the universe determine their shapes. They can only be defined in the universe. It is meaningless to talk about the time before the beginning of the universe in this way. It's a bit like looking for something farther south than the South Pole. It has no definition.
A positivist approach to the study of the universe.
We interpret our sensory input according to the model we build the world.
If the universe does not change with time in essence, as was generally believed before the 1920s, there is no reason to prevent defining time at any early stage in the past. People can always extend history to an earlier time. In this sense, any so-called beginning of the universe is artificial. So, the situation can be like this. The universe was created last year, but all the memory and physical evidence show that it is much older. This raises profound philosophical questions about the meaning of existence. I will adopt the so-called positivism method to deal with these problems. In this method, the idea is that we interpret our sensory input according to the world model we construct. People can't ask whether this model represents reality, only whether it works. First of all, if a simple and elegant model can explain a large number of observations; Secondly, if this model makes a clear prediction, it may be observed and tested, or it may be falsified, then this model is a good model.
According to positivism, people can compare two models of the universe. The first model, the universe was created last year, and the other is that the universe has existed for a long time. Twins were born a year ago, and the universe model that existed for more than a year can explain such things as twins.
Hubble found the galaxy flying away from us.
Stars are not evenly distributed in the whole space.
On the other hand, the model created by the universe last year cannot explain such an event, so the second model is better. People can't ask whether the universe really existed a year ago, or whether it just seemed that way. In the method of positivism, there is no difference between the two.
In an unchanging universe, there is no natural starting point. However, in the 1920s, when Edwin Hubble began to observe with a telescope of 100 inch on Mount Wilson, the situation changed fundamentally. Hubble found that stars are not evenly distributed in the whole space, but gathered in a large number of groups called galaxies.
Hubble measures light from galaxies and can determine their speed. He predicted that there would be as many galaxies flying towards us as those flying away from us. This is what it should look like in a time-invariant universe. But to Hubble's surprise, he found that almost all the galaxies flew away from us. In addition, the farther away the galaxy is from us, the faster it flies. The universe does not change with time, unlike what everyone thinks. It is expanding. The distance between galaxies increases with time.
The most important discovery: the universe is expanding.
The expansion of the universe is one of the most important intellectual discoveries in the 20th century or any century.
The expansion of the universe is one of the most important intellectual discoveries in the 20th century or any century. It changed the debate about the origin of the universe. If galaxies are separating now, they must have been very close in the past. If their speed was constant in the past, all galaxies should have landed on another galaxy about 654.38+0.5 billion years ago. Is this moment the beginning of the universe?
Many scientists still do not like the origin of the universe. Because it seems to mean that physics has collapsed. People have to turn to the outside world for help. For convenience, we can call it God to decide how the universe began. So they put forward some theories. In these theories, the universe is expanding at the moment, but it has no beginning. One of them is the steady-state theory put forward by Band-Aid, Gauld and Huo Yier in 1948.
In the steady-state theory, the idea is that as galaxies leave, new galaxies are formed from hypothetical matter that is constantly created throughout space. The universe will exist forever and look the same at any time. From the positivist point of view, this last attribute has great advantages as a clear prediction that can be tested by observation. The Cambridge Radio Observation Astronomy Team led by martin lel investigated this weak radio source in the early 1960s. These sources are fairly evenly distributed in the sky, indicating that most of them are located outside the Milky Way. On average, weaker sources are farther away.
Conflict between steady-state theory and observation
There are more weak sources than predicted, indicating that the source density was higher in the past.
The number of sources predicted by steady-state theory corresponds to the shape of source intensity curve. However, observation shows that there are more weak sources than predicted, which indicates that the source density in the past was higher. This conflicts with the basic assumption that everything in the steady-state theory is invariant in time. For this and other reasons, the steady-state theory was abandoned.
Another attempt to avoid the origin of the universe is to suggest that there is an early contraction stage, but due to rotation and local randomness, matter will not fall to the same point. On the contrary, different parts of matter will be staggered, and the universe will expand again, at which time the density will remain limited. In fact, two Russians, Livschitz and Halanokov, claimed that they proved that general contraction without strict symmetry always leads to rebound, and the density is still limited. This result is very convenient for Marxism–Leninism's materialist dialectics, because it avoids the thorny problem about the creation of the universe. Therefore, this is the creed of Soviet scientists.