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& lt Tallinn architecture and steel structure

Although building construction technology has made a lot of progress on the whole. The design and construction of super high-rise buildings have made amazing achievements.

The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel frames. Reinforced concrete and stressed skin pipe systems have been used economically and competitively in many residential and commercial buildings. The high-rise buildings from 50 storeys to 6543 storeys being built all over the United States are the result of the innovation and development of the new structural system.

Higher height requires increasing the size of columns and beams to make the building stronger, so that they will not sway beyond the acceptable limit under wind load. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious repeated damage to partitions, ceilings and other architectural details. In addition, excessive rocking may cause discomfort to building residents because of their feelings about this kind of movement. Reinforced concrete and steel structural systems make full use of the inherent potential stiffness of the whole building, so extra reinforcement is needed to limit the sway.

For example, in steel structures, economy can be defined according to the total average steel consumption per square foot of the floor area of the building. Curve A in figure 1 shows the average unit weight of the traditional frame with the increase of the number of stories. Curve b represents the average steel weight when the frame is free from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the high premium of the traditional beam-column frame. In order to eliminate this premium, structural engineers developed structural systems.

Steel system. The development of high-rise buildings with steel structure is the result of several structural innovations. These innovations have been applied to the construction of office buildings and apartment buildings.

Frames with rigid belt trusses. In order to connect the external columns of the frame structure to the internal vertical truss, a rigid strip truss system can be used at the middle height and top of the building. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building in Milwaukee (1974).

Frame tube. As far as strength and rigidity are concerned, only when all column elements are connected with each other in such a way can the maximum efficiency of the whole structure of high-rise building resist wind load be realized, that is, the whole building acts as a hollow tube or a rigid box when it protrudes from the ground. This special structural system may be used for the first time in Chicago's 43-story reinforced concrete Dewit maroon apartment building. The most important application of this system is in the double structural steel tower of new york 1 10 World Trade Center building.

Column-diagonal truss tube. The external columns of a building can be quite far apart, but they can work together like a pipe by connecting them with diagonal members at their center lines. This simple but extremely efficient system was used for the first time in the John Hancock Center in Chicago, using the steel usually needed for a traditional 40-story building.

Bundled pipe. With the continuous demand for larger and taller buildings, frame pipes or column diagonal truss pipes can be used in bundles to produce larger pipe shells while maintaining high efficiency. The Sears roebuck headquarters building on the Chicago 1 10 floor has nine pipes tied at the bottom of the building and arranged in three rows. Some of the individual pipes terminate at different heights of the building, showing the infinite architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. Sears Tower is 1450 feet (442 meters) high and is the tallest building in the world.

The stressed skin tube system. The development of tube structure system is to improve the resistance of high-rise buildings to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and control the drift (lateral movement of buildings). The stressed skin tube pushes the pipeline system forward one step. The development and utilization of stressed rubber tube has made use of fa? As a structural element interacting with the frame tube, the building facade provides an effective way to resist the lateral load in high-rise buildings, and produces a low-cost column-free internal space with a high ratio of net area to total area.

Because of the contribution of stress skin fa? Ade, the frame member of the pipe needs less mass, so it is lighter and cheaper. All typical columns and beams are standard rolled profiles, which minimizes the use and cost of special composite components. The depth requirement of the surrounding arch shoulder beam is also reduced, and the demand for upsetting beams on the floor is minimized, which will occupy valuable space. This structural system has been used in the 54th floor One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh.

Concrete system. Although the steel structure high-rise building started earlier, the development speed of reinforced concrete high-rise building is fast enough, which provides a competitive challenge for the steel structure system of office buildings and apartment buildings.

Frame tube. As mentioned above, the first frame tube concept of high-rise building is used in the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut apartment building. In this building, the center spacing of external columns is 5.5 feet (1.68m), and internal columns are used to support 8-inch columns as required. -Thick (20m) concrete slab.

Pipe in pipe. Another reinforced concrete system for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall structure with the external frame pipe. The system consists of an external frame tube composed of very closely spaced columns and an internal rigid shear wall tube surrounding the central service area. This system (Figure 2) is called pipe-in-pipe system, which makes it possible to design the world's tallest (7 14 feet or 2 18 meters) lightweight concrete building (52-story One Shell Plaza building in Houston), while the unit price of traditional shear wall structure is only 35 stories.

Systems combining concrete and steel have also been developed, one example of which is skidmore, Owings & ampMerril, in which the external dense concrete frame pipes wrap the internal steel frame, thus combining the advantages of reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square building in New Orleans is based on this system.

Steel structure refers to a wide range of building structures dominated by steel. Most steel structures are composed of large buildings or projects, and the steel is usually beams, stringers, bars, plates and other components formed by hot rolling process. Although the use of other materials has increased, steel structure is still the main outlet for the steel industry of the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, Japan, West Germany, France and other steel producers in the1970s.

Early history. The history of steel structure began several decades ago when Bessemer steelmaking method and o penj-hearth steelmaking method came out, which made it possible to produce a large number of structural steels. Many problems of steel structure were studied together with iron structure in the early days. The iron structure began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge built with cast iron on the Severn River in England in 1 1777. In addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron hulls, this project and the subsequent iron bridge project stimulated the development of manufacturing, design and joint technology. The advantage of iron over masonry is that it requires much less materials. Truss form, based on the resistance of triangle to deformation, has been used for wood for a long time and effectively converted into iron. Cast iron is used for compression members, that is, members bearing direct loads, and wrought iron is used for tension members, that is, members bearing hanging loads.

As early as 1800, the technology of forming flat steel and round steel by heating iron to plastic state between rollers was developed. To 18 19 angle steel is rolled; In 1849, the first I-beam, 17.7 feet (5.4 meters) long, was made into the roof girder of Paris Railway Station.

Two years later, Joseph Paxton in England built the Crystal Palace for the London Expo. It is said that he came up with the idea of building cages-using relatively slender iron beams as the skeleton of glass walls of large open buildings. The wind resistance of Crystal Palace is provided by diagonal iron bars. In the history of metal buildings, two features are particularly important: first, the use of lattice beam, which is a small truss, was first developed in wooden bridges and other structures and transformed from paxton to metal; Secondly, the wrought iron tension member and the cast iron compression member are connected by inserting rivets while they are hot.

1853, the first metal floor beam was rolled for Cooper Union Building in new york. In view of the main demand for iron beams in the market at that time, it is not surprising that the beams of Cooper Union are very similar to railway tracks.

In the1850s and1860s, the development of Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes suddenly opened the way for structural steel. This new metal is stronger than iron in tension and compression, so it was adopted by imaginative engineers, especially those who participated in the construction of a large number of heavy railway bridges needed by Britain, Europe and the United States at that time.

A famous example is the Eads Bridge in St. Louis, also known as St. Louis Bridge (1867- 1874), in which tubular steel ribs are used to form arches with a span of more than 500 feet (152.5 meters). In Britain, the fourth cantilever bridge (1883-90) adopts tubular struts with a diameter of about 12 feet (3.66 meters) and a length of 350 feet (107 meters). Such bridges and other structures are very important in leading to the development and implementation of standards and the compilation of allowable design stresses. Lack of sufficient theoretical knowledge and even theoretical research foundation limited the value of stress analysis in the early 20th century, as revealed by accidental failures, such as Quebec 1907 cantilever bridge. But in the office building with metal frame, failure is rare; Even in the absence of complex analytical techniques, the simplicity of their design has proved to be very practical. In the first third of this century, ordinary carbon steel without special alloy strengthening or hardening was widely used.

1889 Paris Expo showed the world the inherent possibility of metal structure of high-rise buildings. To this end, the famous French bridge engineer Lysander gustave eiffel built a 300-meter (984-foot) hollow metal tower. Not only is it more than twice the height of the Great Pyramid, but it is also fast and low cost. A small team completed the work in a few months.

The first skyscrapers. At the same time, another important development is taking place in the United States. 1985, major William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer, designed the family insurance building, which is ten stories high and has a metal skeleton. Jenny's beam is made of Bessemer steel, while his post is made of cast iron. The cast iron lintels supporting the masonry above the window are supported on the cast iron columns in turn. Solid masonry courtyard and party wall provide lateral support against wind load. Within ten years, more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and new york have adopted the same architectural form. Steel plays an increasingly important role in it. Beams and columns are connected by rivets, and sometimes gussets are covered at the joints of vertical and horizontal members to strengthen wind-resistant support. The light masonry curtain wall supported on each floor replaced the old heavy masonry curtain wall.

Although this new architectural form has been almost completely centered on the United States for decades, its influence on the steel industry is worldwide. By the last years of the19th century, the basic structural shape-I-beam was 20 inches long. Z-shape and T-shape with a depth of (0.508 m) and a small proportion can be easily obtained, and can be combined with several plates with different widths and thicknesses to make effective members with any required size and strength. In 1885, the heaviest structural profile produced by hot rolling weighed less than 100 pound (45 kg) per foot; Ten years later, this number rose, until the 1960 s, it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.

At the same time of introducing structural steel, Otis elevator came out in 1889. The demonstration of the safe Senger elevator and the safe and economical steel structure method have made the building soar. In new york, the 1902 iron building with a height of 286 feet (87.2 meters) was replaced by the 375-foot (1 15 meters) Times Building (renamed Joint Chemical Building) and 468 feet (143) in 1904.

The rapid increase of height and aspect ratio has brought problems. In order to limit street congestion, the design of building retreat is stipulated. In terms of technology, the problem of lateral support is studied. Diagonal support systems such as those used in the Eiffel Tower are not suitable for offices that rely on sunlight. The answer lies in relying more on the bending resistance of some individual beams and columns strategically designed as frames, and seeking a high degree of rigidity at the joints of beams and columns. However, with today's modern indoor lighting system, diagonal braces are back to resist wind loads; A famous example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-shaped support forms a striking part of the building facade? Ed.

World War I interrupted the craze that was later called skyscraper (the origin of this word is uncertain), but in A.D. 1920, new york started the high-altitude competition again, reaching its climax in A.D. 193 1 year. The 102 floor of the Empire State Building. [38 1m]) will maintain its position as the tallest building in the world in the next 40 years. Its construction speed shows that the new construction technology has been fully mastered. A warehouse opposite Bayon Bay in New Jersey uses barges and trucks to supply girders, and the schedule is accurate to the military level; Nine cranes driven by electric hoists lift the girder into place; An industrial railway system transports steel and other materials on every floor. The initial connection is through bolt connection, followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The whole work was completed in one year and 45 days.

The worldwide depression of 1930 and World War II provided another interruption for the development of steel structures, but at the same time, the introduction of welding instead of riveting provided an important progress.

By the end of19th century, the connection of steel parts by metal arc welding had been successfully realized, and it was used for emergency ship repair during World War I, but its application in architecture was limited only after World War II. Another progress in the same field is the use of high-strength bolts instead of rivets in field connection.

Since the end of World War II, the research in Europe, the United States and Japan has greatly expanded the understanding of the behavior of different types of structural steels under different stresses, including the stress beyond the yield point, making it possible to conduct more detailed and systematic analysis. This, in turn, has led most countries to adopt freer design codes. The so-called plastic design makes more imaginative design possible? By simplifying the tedious paperwork, the introduction of computers makes further progress and savings possible.