Wittgenstein (1889 ~ 195 1)
Ludwig Wittgenstein
British philosopher and mathematical logician. One of the founders of analytical philosophy. 1889 was born in a Jewish family in Vienna, Austria on April 26th. 1903 was sent to a middle school in Linz. 1906 graduated. After graduating from high school, Wittgenstein went to a higher technical school in Berlin. 1908 graduated. After graduation, he transferred to Manchester University, majoring in aerodynamics. Wittgenstein visited Frege in Jena during the summer vacation of 19 1. The latter suggested that he go to Cambridge to study with Russell. Therefore, he came to Cambridge this autumn and was highly praised by Russell. 1965438+autumn 2003-1965438+spring 2004, he wrote some important philosophical notes. 1965438+In August 2004, Wittgenstein signed up for the army and participated in the First World War. He wrote 4-7 letters during the war. After World War I, Wittgenstein taught primary schools in rural Austria for several years. 1929 returned to Cambridge, where he took philosophy of logic as his doctoral thesis and obtained his doctorate. The following year, he became a researcher at Trinity College, and 1939 succeeded Professor G.E. Moore of Cambridge. From 65438 to 0947, he resigned as a professor, specializing in philosophy research in rural Ireland.
Wittgenstein's philosophical thought can be divided into early stage and late stage. In the early stage, it was the philosophy of logical analysis, the core of which was schema theory, which had a decisive influence on logical positivism. In the later period, the previous philosophical views were basically abandoned, that is, schema theory was replaced by linguistic game theory, logical analysis was replaced by linguistic analysis, and ideal language was replaced by everyday language. His philosophy in this period had a great influence on the historicism in daily philosophy of language and philosophy of science. He is the author of Logic-Philosophy and Philosophical Research.
1951On April 29th, Wittgenstein passed away. His last words were: "Tell them I'm doing well!" " .
Freud (Sigmund 1856- 1939) is a Jewish psychiatrist and the founder of psychoanalysis. Born in Freiburg, Moravia, Czech Republic, he studied medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873, and received his doctorate in 188 1 year. 1882 cooperated with psychiatrist J. Bleuel to treat and study hysteria with hypnosis. During 1885 and 1886, I went to Paris to study J.M. Shaker first, and then I went to Nancy to visit hypnotherapy. After returning to Vienna, I realized the limitations of hypnotherapy. After 1895, I used my original psychoanalysis or free association method to explore patients' forgotten ideas and desires, especially their childhood. In the process of treatment, he found that patients often resisted, and realized that this was evidence of repressed desires, so he founded psychoanalytic theory with subconscious as the basic content. The original concepts were defense, resistance, repression, venting and so on. In the process of clinical treatment, patients also show empathy for doctors, thus thinking that most of people's neural activities are based on sexual desire, while most of the repressed desires are sexual, and sexual dysfunction is the root of neurosis. 1909, at the invitation of S hall, president and famous psychologist of Clark University in the United States, he and Jung went to the United States to attend the 20th anniversary of the school and met with famous American psychologists W James, E B Teachenor and J Mike Cartel. He made a speech with psychoanalysis as the theme and gained great reputation. After returning to China, some of his disciples, A. Adler, C. G. Jung and O. Rank, opposed his universalism and left him for their homes. During and after the First World War, he constantly revised and developed his own theory, and put forward three important theories, such as narcissism, life and death instinct, ID, ego and superego, which made psychoanalysis a method to understand the motivation and personality of all mankind. His theory reached its peak in the 1930s. 1930 was awarded the Goethe Prize. On 1936' s birthday, he was awarded the honor of being a member of the Royal Society. He struggled with oral cancer in the last 16 years and kept on working. 1938 was forced to leave Vienna for London under the coercion of the Nazis. 1939 died of cancer in London on September 23rd. His main works are: Interpretation of Dreams, Psychopathology of Daily Life, Introduction to Psychoanalysis, New Theory of Psychoanalysis, and Autobiography of Freud.
Socrates' theory is mysterious. He believes that the existence, development and destruction of all things in the world are arranged by God, who is the master of the world. He opposed the study of nature as blasphemy. He advocates that people know how to be human and live a moral life. His philosophy mainly studies and discusses ethical issues.
Plato thinks that spirit is the first and matter is the second; He believes that the real world is only a weak reflection of the ideal world, which is real, but the real world is not real. He completely reversed the relationship between spirit and matter. Politically, Plato supported the autocratic system of aristocratic slave owners, and his ideal was similar to that of Sparta in many parts of China.
Aristotle criticized Plato's idealism, mainly pointing out that you can't exist without the individual, and the essence of things, that is, "form", is within things. He put forward the four-cause theory, which holds that concrete things are composed of four reasons, namely, material reasons, formal reasons, motivation reasons and purpose reasons. Concrete things have neither intangible matter nor intangible matter. The process of combining matter with form is the movement to turn potential into reality. This theory shows his spontaneous dialectical thought. However, he thinks that "form" is a positive and dynamic factor, and puts forward that there is a form without matter as the ultimate goal of everything and the ultimate reason of movement, which is the "first driving force" and thus turns to idealism. He advocates that the object of cognition is external things, emphasizes the importance of feeling in cognition, and thinking depends on feeling. This is closely related to materialism. But he also believes that rational knowledge is "noble" knowledge, pure speculative life is the happiest life, the highest ideal of life, and rational development is the ultimate goal of education.
The starting point of Hegel's philosophy is to admit that there was a universal spirit (which he called "absolute concept") before the appearance of nature and human society. He believes that "absolute concept" is the source of everything; Any phenomenon in the world, whether natural, social or human thinking, is derived from it. This idea is actually a more tortuous and obscure statement about God's creation of the world. Hegel's philosophical system is a description of the development process of absolute concept. In his view, the absolute concept is developing objectively and independently; It starts from the logical stage, goes through the natural stage, and finally develops to the spiritual stage and returns to itself. Therefore, his philosophical system consists of three parts: logic, natural philosophy and spiritual philosophy.
Feuerbach linked critical idealism with critical religion. He pointed out that general idealism, especially Hegel's idealism, is the theoretical basis of religion; Hegel's theory about the primacy of ideas and the transformation of ideas into nature in the process of development is just a rationalist form of Christian doctrine about God's creation of the world. However, Feuerbach's criticism of Hegel is one-sided. Feuerbach abandoned Hegel's idealism and Hegel's dialectics. He can't take out the "reasonable core" from Hegel's dialectics.
Kant believes that causality can neither be proved by itself nor by logic. He is convinced that he can understand the reality around him and experience the causal relationship in external things and phenomena.