■ Confucius lost his father at the age of 3, and moved to Que Li with his mother Yan Zhizai, where he was taught. When Confucius was young, he was "a child's play, forbidding the army as a gift." . When I was a child, my family was poor. 15 years old was determined to study. The dragon, on the other hand, became a "Commissioner" in charge of warehouses and a "farmer" in charge of cattle and sheep. He is open-minded and eager to learn, and has no regular teacher. According to legend, he invited Li to learn the truth of being a man from Changhong and the piano from the teacher. At the age of 30, he has become a well-known local scholar, and started a private school under his tutelage. Its ideological core is "benevolence", and "benevolence" means "love". He regards "benevolence" as the norm and purpose of benevolence, so that "benevolence" and "courtesy" can be used mutually. It is advocated that rulers should govern the people with virtue and treat others with courtesy, so as to reproduce the prosperous time of the Western Zhou Dynasty when "rites and music were conquered from the emperor" and realize their ideal of "great harmony".
■ At the age of 35, Confucius left because of civil strife in Lu. In order to get close, he became a vassal of the nobles of Qi State. The following year, Qi Jinggong asked Confucius about political affairs. Confucius said, "A monarch should be like a monarch, a minister should be like a minister, a father should be like a father, and a son should be like a son." Gong Jing appreciated it very much and wanted to use Confucius, but Yan Ying and Qi Xiang stopped him and had to give up. I want to return to Shandong as soon as possible, continue to learn knowledge and train my disciples. 5 1 year-old, served as the governor in the capital of Lu (now a local official in Wenshang West). The result of good governance is "one year, all directions follow". At the age of 52, he was promoted from Zhongduzai to an ordinary scout in Lu. In 500 BC (the tenth year of Lu), Lu and Qi joined forces in Oracle bones, and Confucius put forward that "those who have military affairs must have equipment, and those who have military affairs must have equipment". Trying to intimidate Lu Jun into submission, Confucius reprimanded him with courtesy, which saved national dignity, so that Qi Huangong had to agree to form an alliance to make peace and return Lu 'an and the three places to Lu. When Confucius was 54 years old, he was entrusted by Ji to take pictures. In order to improve the authority of the monarch, he put forward the idea of "reducing the three capitals" and restraining the three Huan (Dr. Lu San), but the result was opposed by the three doctors and failed. At the age of 55, the monarch and minister of Lu accepted the beauty presented by Qi, and indulged in debauchery all day long. Disappointed, Confucius abandoned his official position and left Shandong, leading his disciples around the world to find another opportunity to display his talents. During this time, he worked for more than 70 emperors, but nothing happened. In 484 BC (eleven years), Ji Kangzi of Lu listened to the persuasion of Confucius disciples and sent someone to pick him up from Weiguo.
■ Confucius returned to Lu, although he was honored as an "old man in the country", but he was still not reused. Instead of seeking official positions, he continued to devote himself to education and document arrangement. He trained more than 3,000 disciples in his life, 72 of whom were proficient in six arts (etiquette, music, archery, imperial defense, calligraphy and mathematics). In teaching practice, a whole set of educational theories, such as teaching students in accordance with their aptitude, paying equal attention to learning and thinking, drawing inferences from others, inspiring and inducing, studying and teaching others tirelessly, and the learning attitude of "knowing what it is, not knowing what it is" and "not ashamed to ask questions", are praised by future generations. He deleted poems, wrote books, ordered rites and music, revised Chunqiu, and comprehensively sorted out China's ancient literature. Grow old together with Yi, and reach the realm of "Bian Wei's Three Musts".
■ At the age of 69, his only son Kong Li died. 7 1 year-old, Yan Hui, a favorite pupil, died of illness. Confucius was extremely sad and sighed: "Heaven has fallen! The sky is lost! " This year, someone caught a monster named Lin in Luxi and died soon. He thought that the appearance and death of Kirin, a symbol of kindness and good fortune, was an ominous sign of chaos in the world, so he stopped compiling the book Spring and Autumn Annals. At the age of 72, I was deeply saddened to learn that my son had died in a national disaster. The following year (479 BC), in February of the summer calendar, Confucius fell ill for 7 days and died.
2. Sun Yat-sen (1866- 1925) was born in Hengcun, Xiangshan County (now Zhongshan City, Guangdong Province) on February 2. Because he later changed his name to "Zhongshan religion" when he was engaged in revolutionary activities, he was also called Sun Yat-sen. When he was a teenager, he had the ambition to save the country and the people, calling himself "Hong Xiuquan's second".
1894, the Sino-Japanese War broke out in Zhongshan. In the national crisis, he embarked on the road of bourgeois revolution. In the winter of the same year, Sun Yat-sen founded the revolutionary group Zhong Xing Society in Xiangshan.
1905, China Alliance was established in Tokyo, Japan, and was elected as Prime Minister. He personally formulated the revolutionary program of "expelling Tatars, restoring China, establishing the Republic of China, and sharing land rights" for the League, and put forward the three people's principles of nationality, civil rights and people's livelihood. 19 1 1 was elected as interim president in Wuchang Uprising, and 19 12 was sworn in in in Nanjing on New Year's Day. 1924, 65438+ 10, determined the three major policies of "uniting Russia, uniting with * * * and aiding the peasants and workers", developed the old Three People's Principles into the new Three People's Principles, and established a United front of the two parties and people from all walks of life. ?
As a giant of China in the 20th century, a great patriot and a great pioneer of China's democratic revolution, Sun Yat-sen made immortal contributions and led the democratic revolution with complete significance, paving the way for the later revolutionary movement. He overthrew the feudal monarchy and established the first republic in China and even Asia. He is a glorious historical milestone. His ideological and theoretical system and his designated program are worthy of being a formal theory and plan for comprehensively promoting China's modernization; He devoted all his energy and wisdom to building an independent, unified, democratic and prosperous China. 1894165438+10. In October, among the overseas Chinese in Honolulu, Sun Yat-sen founded the first bourgeois revolutionary group in China-Xingzhonghui. In his pledge to join the Party, he proposed "expelling the Tatars, restoring China, and establishing a coalition government", which was the first time to propose to the people of China the revolutionary idea of overthrowing the Qing government and establishing a bourgeois republic. 1895, Sun Yat-sen established the Zhong Xing Guild Association in Hongkong, and established the Zhong Xing Guild Organization in Guangzhou and Yokohama. 1895 and 1900, he led the Hui people in Zhong Xing and contacted the Hui people's party to launch the Guangzhou Uprising and Huizhou Uprising.
In order to realize the great goal of China's democratic revolution, Sun Yat-sen did a lot of propaganda, agitation and preparation overseas, and fought fiercely with the royalists headed by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. In this struggle, Sun Yat-sen clearly pointed out that revolution and royalism are "incompatible and irreconcilable with reason", which fully demonstrated his clear stand as a revolutionary Democrat.
1In August, 905, Sun Yat-sen, together with Zhong Xing Society, Huaxing Society, Guangfu Society and other small revolutionary groups, established China's first bourgeois revolutionary party, China League, in Tokyo, Japan, and put forward the political program of "expelling the Tatars, restoring China, establishing the Republic of China, and sharing land rights equally". The establishment of the League promoted the development of the democratic revolution and marked a new stage of the bourgeois democratic revolution in China.
After the founding of the League, Sun Yat-sen actively carried out propaganda and organization work. 1905165438+10, the People's Daily, the organ newspaper of the League, was founded. In the preface, Dr. Sun Yat-sen first summarized the sixteen-character program of the League as three principles: nationality, civil rights and people's livelihood, and took the People's Daily as a position to discuss with royalists whether China wanted democracy and system or constitutional monarchy. Take the revolutionary road or take the road of improvement and other major issues, and start a tit-for-tat debate. Through the debate, the idea of democratic revolution was widely spread, which effectively promoted the arrival of the climax of democratic revolution and made important ideological preparations and public opinion preparations for the 1911 Revolution.
While the revolutionaries and reformists were arguing endlessly, Sun Yat-sen launched and led many armed uprisings. Many people's spontaneous anti-feudal struggles have also taken place all over the country. These uprisings and struggles violently impacted the reactionary rule of the Qing Dynasty and laid the foundation for the success of the Revolution of 1911.
1911010 (1911August/9), Hubei Revolutionary Group Literature Society and Wuchang Uprising received a wide response, and many provinces in China successively announced their secession from the Qing government and supported peace, and the reactionary rule of the Qing Dynasty fell apart.
After learning the good news of Wuchang Uprising in America, Sun Yat-sen returned to Shanghai on19112.25. On the 29th, representatives of seventeen provinces responding to Wuchang Uprising held a meeting in Nanjing, and elected Sun Yat-sen as the interim president of the Republic of China. On June 1 91265438+10/day, Sun Yat-sen was sworn in in in Nanjing and announced the establishment of the Republic of China, thus ending the feudal monarchy for more than 2,000 years, and the concept of building a country through democracy was deeply rooted in the hearts of the people.
After the establishment of the Nanjing Provisional Government, Sun Yat-sen led the formulation of the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China and promulgated a series of decrees conducive to bourgeois democracy and the development of capitalist economy. Yuan Shikai, who held real power in the Qing government, with the support of imperialism, commanded his subordinates to unite electricity and opposed * * * and; At the same time, a smoke screen supporting * * * was cast to confuse the revolutionaries. Under the pressure of counter-revolutionary forces at home and abroad, the weak bourgeoisie was forced to compromise. After the abdication of the Qing emperor, Sun Yat-sen resigned as interim president. The fruits of the revolution fell into Yuan Shikai's hands. The main words and deeds of Confucius' life were compiled by his disciples and his disciples into The Analects of Confucius, which became the classics of later Confucianism. Confucius' Philosophical Discourse
It is not enough to discuss those who are ambitious and ashamed of poor food and clothing.
Angry and forgetful, happy and forgetful, I don't know that old age is coming. ...
Eat less, drink more water, bend your arms and enjoy it. Unjust wealth is like a cloud to me.
Hyun-jae, come back! A spoonful of food, a spoonful of drink, in a mean alley, it is unbearable to see. I won't change my fun back.
Hyun-jae, come back!
Being rich and expensive is what people want; If you don't take this road, you will accomplish nothing. Poverty and meanness are disgusting to people;
If you don't take the main road, you won't go.
I have money to ask for. Although I am a whipper, I do the same. If you can't ask, just do as I say.
Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quarters?
See profit and forget righteousness, and give up life for righteousness.
Cultivate one's morality for respect, cultivate one's morality for security ... cultivate one's morality for people's security.
You can entrust a six-foot orphan, you can send a hundred miles of life, and the big festival cannot be taken away.
People with lofty ideals are benevolent, there is no harm in saving, and there is benevolence in death.
Your name is obscure, because you are ill and there is no world.
Ambitious people are straightforward and righteous. Watch what you say and what you do. Consider the following people.
A gentleman is Thai but not arrogant, and a villain is arrogant but not Thai.
It is not right for a gentleman to say (yue) is easy, and it is wrong to say (yue) and not to say (yue).
The official position of the gentleman also carried out his righteousness.
Children refer to childbirth. There are four ways for a gentleman: his way respects others, his business respects others, and his benefit supports the people.
It makes people upright.
A gentleman is harmonious but different, and a villain is not harmonious.
A gentleman is proud and does not fight, but a group is not a party.
The week of gentlemen is incomparable, and the week of villains is incomparable.
An upright man is open and poised, little people are always sad.
The benevolent does not worry, the knower is not confused, and the brave is not afraid.
Do it for the benefit, but complain more.
3. At that time, the most famous mathematician, scientist and philosopher in England was also an alchemist. The law of gravitation and Newton's law of motion put forward by him in Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy published on July 5, 1687 are the cornerstones of classical mechanics. Newton and Leibniz also independently invented calculus. He always left more than 500,000 words of alchemy manuscripts and 6,543,800 words of theology manuscripts. British physicist Newton's IQ: 190
Young Newton
1643 65438+1October 4th, Newton was born in a farmer's family in Wolthorpe, Lincolnshire, England. Newton was a premature baby, weighing only three pounds at birth. The midwife and his relatives are worried about whether he will survive. No one expected that this seemingly insignificant little thing would become a giant of science and live to be 85 years old. Three months before Newton was born, his father died. When he was two years old, his mother remarried to a priest and left Newton to his grandmother. 1 1 years old, my mother's step hubband passed away, and my mother returned to Newton with a son and two daughters born with step hubband. Newton was taciturn and stubborn since childhood, which may come from his family situation.
From about the age of five, Newton was sent to public schools. Newton was not a child prodigy when he was a teenager. He has average qualifications and average grades, but he likes reading books, reading books that introduce various simple mechanical model making methods, and being inspired by them, he makes some strange gadgets by himself, such as windmills, wooden clocks, folding lanterns and so on.
Legend has it that young Newton made a model of the mill after thoroughly understanding the mechanical principle of the windmill. He tied the mouse to a treadmill with wheels, and then put a corn in front of the wheel, just out of the mouse's reach. The mouse wants to eat corn, so it keeps running, so the wheel keeps turning; Once again, when he was flying a kite, he hung a small lamp on the rope. In the evening, the villagers were surprised to find that a comet appeared. He also made a small water clock. Every morning, the water bell will automatically drop water on his face to wake him up. He also likes painting and carving, especially carving sundials. His sundial was placed in the corner of his house and everywhere on the windowsill to observe the movement of the shadow.
Newton entered Grantham Middle School not far from home at the age of 12. Newton's mother had hoped that he would become a farmer, but Newton himself had no intention of doing so and loved reading. As he grew older, Newton became more and more fond of reading, meditating and doing small scientific experiments. When he was studying in Grantham Middle School, he lived in a pharmacist's house, which influenced him by chemical experiments.
Newton's achievements
Contribution to mechanics
Newton made an in-depth study on the basis of the work of Galileo and others, and summed up three basic laws of motion of objects (Newton's three laws): ① When any object is not subjected to external force or the resultant force of external force is zero, it keeps its original motion state unchanged, that is, the original motion continues to be static, and the original motion continues to move in a straight line at a constant speed. ② Under the action of external force, the motion state of any object changes, and the rate of change of its momentum with time is directly proportional to the resultant force. Generally speaking, it can be expressed as: the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the acting force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object, and the direction of acceleration is consistent with the direction of the acting force. (3) When object A gives object B a force, object B must give object A a reaction force at the same time. Force and reaction force are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, on the same straight line. These three very simple laws of motion have laid a solid foundation for mechanics and exerted great influence on the development of other disciplines. Galileo once put forward the content of the first law, and then R Descartes made a formal improvement, and Galileo also informally mentioned the content of the second law. The content of the third law was obtained by Newton after summing up the achievements of C Lane, J Wallis and C Huygens.
Newton was the discoverer of the law of universal gravitation. He began to think about this problem in 1665 ~ 1666. 1679, R. Hook wrote to him that gravity should be inversely proportional to the square of the distance, and the trajectory of the projectile at the height of the earth is elliptical. Suppose there is a crack in the earth, the projectile will return to its original place, instead of the spiral line towards the center of the earth as Newton imagined. Newton didn't reply, but adopted Hooke's opinion. Based on Kepler's laws of planetary motion and other people's research results, he mathematically deduced the law of universal gravitation.
Newton unified the mechanics of objects on the earth and celestial mechanics into a basic mechanical system and established a classical mechanical theoretical system. It correctly reflects the macro motion law of macro objects at low speed and realizes the first great unity of natural science. This is a leap in human understanding of nature.
Newton pointed out that the viscous resistance of fluid is proportional to the shear rate. He said: the resistance caused by the lack of lubricity between fluid parts, if everything else is the same, is proportional to the separation speed between fluid parts. At present, fluids that conform to this law are called Newtonian fluids, including the most common water and air, and those that do not conform to this law are called non-Newtonian fluids.
When Newton gave the resistance of a flat plate in the airflow, he adopted a particle model for the gas, and concluded that the resistance was proportional to the sine square of the angle of attack. This conclusion is generally incorrect, but because of Newton's authoritative position, later generations have long regarded it as a creed. In the 20th century, T Carmen said humorously when summing up the development of aerodynamics that Newton made the plane go to heaven a century later.
Regarding the speed of sound, Newton correctly pointed out that the speed of sound is directly proportional to the square root of atmospheric pressure and inversely proportional to the square root of density. However, because he regards sound propagation as an isothermal process, the result is inconsistent with reality. Later, P.-S. Laplace revised Newton's formula of sound speed from the perspective of adiabatic process.
Contribution to mathematics
Since17th century, the original geometry and algebra have been difficult to solve many new problems raised by production and natural science at that time, such as: how to find the instantaneous velocity and acceleration of an object? How to find the tangent of the curve and the length of the curve (planetary distance), the area swept by the vector diameter, the minimum value (such as perihelion, apohelion, maximum range, etc.). ), volume, center of gravity, gravity, etc.; Although Newton had made some achievements in logarithm, analytic geometry and infinite series before, he could not solve these problems satisfactorily or universally. The greatest influences on Newton at that time were Descartes' Geometry and Varis's arithmetica infinitorum. Newton unified various special methods for solving infinitesimal problems since ancient Greece into two algorithms: downstream calculus (differential) and countercurrent calculus (integral), which are embodied in the application of infinite polynomial equation in 1669, stream calculus and infinite series in 167 1 and infinite series in 1676. The so-called "flow" is an independent variable that changes with time, such as x, y, s, u, etc. The "flow number" is the speed of flow change, that is, the rate of change, writing, etc. There is a difference between the "differential rate" and the "variable rate" he said. At the same time, he first published his binomial expansion theorem in 1676. Newton used it to discover other infinite series, and used it to calculate areas, integrals, solve equations and so on. 1684, Leibniz introduced and lengthened S as the symbol of calculus from the tangent study of curves, and the calculus founded by Newton was rapidly popularized in mainland countries.
The appearance of calculus has become another important branch in the development of mathematics besides geometry and algebra-mathematical analysis (Newton called it "analysis by the method of infinite polynomial equation"), and further developed into differential geometry, differential equation, variational method and so on, thus promoting the development of theoretical physics. For example, J Bernoulli of Switzerland seeks the solution of the steepest descent curve, which is the initial problem of variational method, and no mathematician in Europe can answer it within half a year. 1697, Newton overheard it one day, and it was solved in one fell swoop that night, and it was published anonymously in the Journal of Philosophy. Bernoulli said in surprise, "I recognized the lion from this claw."
Newton put forward the "flow method" on the basis of predecessors' work, established binomial theorem, and founded calculus almost at the same time with G.W. Leibniz, and obtained the concepts and operation rules of derivative and integral, clarifying that derivative and integral are reciprocal operations, which opened up a new era for the development of mathematics.
Optical contribution
Newton devoted himself to the study of color phenomena and the nature of light. 1666, he studied sunlight with a prism and came to the conclusion that white light is a mixture of different colors (that is, different wavelengths), and different wavelengths of light have different refractive indexes. Among visible light, red light has the longest wavelength and the smallest refractive index. Violet light has the shortest wavelength and the largest refractive index. This important discovery of Newton became the basis of spectral analysis and revealed the secret of light color. Newton also pressed the convex surface of a fine grinding convex lens with a large radius of curvature on a very smooth flat glass. Under the irradiation of white light, we can see that the contact point of the center is a dark point, surrounded by a concentric circle of light and dark. Later generations called this phenomenon "Newton's Ring". He founded the "particle theory" of light, which reflected the essence of light movement from one side, but Newton did not object to the "wave theory" of light. From 65438 to 0704, he published a book "Optics", which systematically expounded his research achievements in optics.
Contribution of heat
Newton established the law of cooling, that is, when there is a temperature difference between the surface of an object and its surroundings, the heat lost per unit area per unit time is directly proportional to this temperature difference.
Contribution to astronomy
Newton made reflecting telescope in 1672. He used the universal gravitation between particles to prove that the external gravitation of a spherically symmetric sphere can be replaced by particles with the same mass in the center. He also explained various phenomena of tides with the principle of universal gravitation, pointing out that the magnitude of tides is not only related to the phase of the moon, but also related to the orientation of the sun. Newton predicted that the earth was not a right sphere. Precession is caused by the disturbance of the equator by the sun.