According to the theory of military logistics, logistics system is the general name of the organizational system and organizational system established by the army to carry out rear service work. Including the establishment, composition, establishment, subordinate relationship and division of powers of logistics institutions at all levels. According to the organizational system, it includes army logistics system and naval logistics system. According to the nature of the task, including logistics organization and command system, logistics support system, etc. In terms of professional content, it includes material financial system, medical service system, transportation system and maintenance system.
The Qing Dynasty was the period when China's ancient military system developed to the final stage and gradually transformed into a modern military system, which was particularly prominent in the late Qing Dynasty. The construction of modern logistics system began with the Opium War, was promoted by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, and took the Sino-Japanese War as the turning point. Before the Opium War, the Qing government mainly relied on traditional weapons such as knives, guns, swords, halberds and rusty "red cannons" to continue the ancient military logistics system. 1840, as the beginning of China's modern history, its significance lies in the strong impact of western advanced military technology on the concept of China people. The huge gap between weapons and equipment makes Chinese people feel the urgency of self-improvement and self-defense. Therefore, Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and other people of insight put forward the strategic defense thought of "learning from foreigners to control foreigners", but it did not get the attention of the imperial court. Therefore, in the 10 years after the Opium War, China's modern military thought was enlightened and developed, and the modernization of the army did not achieve much. 19 The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement in the early 1950s severely hit the Qing army, and the Qing government had to import a large number of advanced weapons to maintain its rule. At the same time, Zeng Guofan, Zuo, Li Hongzhang and other westernization bureaucrats launched the "self-improvement" movement of "preempting the device" and began to manufacture advanced weapons. On the other hand, the adoption of new weapons and equipment not only increased the number of logistics personnel and material consumption, but also spread from the army to the industrial, transportation and financial departments of the country, which promoted the establishment of military industry and the construction of railways, and also promoted the changes in military financing mechanism and military consumption channels. It can be said that the change of military logistics support content is an important reason for the evolution of military logistics system in the late Qing Dynasty. However, from the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the construction of modern military logistics system was forced by the change of weapons and equipment, lacking overall consideration, and failed to form a top-down and orderly logistics system, which could not meet the needs of modern wars. After the failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the Qing government began to reform the military system and train new troops, and a modern military logistics system was initially established. This paper mainly analyzes the track of military logistics construction from the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War from two aspects: logistics organization and command system and logistics support system.
First, the logistics organization and command system
Logistics organization and command system is the collective name of the organization, functional division and system of the whole military logistics system, and it is the organizational basis for implementing logistics support. It consists of logistics command organs at all levels and professional service departments. Before the Opium War, the central logistics management organization of the Qing Dynasty basically inherited from the Ming Dynasty, with the military, household and industrial departments as the central organs to manage logistics. The responsibilities involved in logistics in the three divisions are: the official department of the armory under the Ministry of War is in charge of weapons, the official department is in charge of the world map, and the official department is in charge of postal symbols and horse husbandry laws; The department manages taxes, warehouse income and expenditure, etc. , and has a quartermaster bureau that is responsible for the use of military expenses; The Ministry of Industry is responsible for "building and balancing military equipment". It is responsible for the storage and distribution of gunpowder and the construction and repair of warships. There is a manufacturing warehouse under it, which specializes in metallurgical manufacturing. Three opinions about logistics management are often forwarded by the military, and the emperor's will is also conveyed by the military. After the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the local power was gradually strengthened and the central authority was weakened. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, some major changes had taken place in the central logistics management system: due to the development of the Westernization Movement, the yamen, the prime minister in charge of Westernization, was also in charge of a considerable number of logistics affairs, such as customs, railways, posts and telecommunications, arsenals, etc., all involving the improvement and progress of military logistics conditions. With the decline of the status of the three ministries, the military strength and financial resources of local governors have greatly increased, occupying an important position in the military logistics system. This has had a far-reaching impact on the unified logistics collection and distribution of troops in wartime.
After the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, besides the central logistics organization and command system, the military logistics organization system has also undergone great changes. The army is mainly embodied in Xiang Army and Huai Army, and the navy is represented by Beiyang Navy.
1, military logistics organization and command system of Hunan-Huai Army
Xiang Army and Huai Army were the most important military groups in the late Qing Dynasty, which had an important influence on the military, politics and society of modern China. In order to suppress the Taiping Army, Zeng Guofan set up a new type of landlord armed forces-Xiang Army. Its system of selecting generals, recruiting soldiers, operating system and paying seals was quite different from that of green camp, and it was also equipped with foreign guns, which initiated the precedent of "soldiers will have them" in the late Qing Dynasty. From the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom to the Sino-Japanese War, the army continued the system of Xiang Army and Huai Army.
The logistics organs of Xiang Army and Huai Army are grain platforms. Xiang Army and Huai Army have two organs, one is the battalion of the main soldiers, and the other is the grain platform of the main soldiers. The grain depot is divided into eight places: copy room, internal money room, external money room, ordnance room, gun room, detective room, interrogation room and editing room. The grain depot has a Commissioner for Prime Minister Affairs, who is in charge of the affairs, and each department appoints the Commissioner to be responsible. Its main task is to transport the grain and ordnance raised by many parties to the front line by water or land and distribute them to the Hunan armies. The grain platform system corresponds to the characteristics of Xiang soldiers and was directly ordered by Zeng Guofan. In the course of the battle, the former enemy, the latter enemy grain platform and the transshipment bureau were set up, which made the responsibilities of all departments of the grain platform more clear and improved the efficiency. Following the example of Xiang Army, Huai Army set up a grain platform in the center of major traffic routes, which played an important logistical role in suppressing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement and the Nian Army Uprising.
As far as logistics personnel are concerned, it is the establishment of the long-term husband system. 1854, Zeng Guofan initiated the long-term husband system, that is, logistics personnel were specially set up in the military camp to undertake military chores, stipulating: "There are 48 battalion officers and deputy long-term husbands." . Handle matchsticks, medicines and all military uniforms. , * * * enjoy 30 captain. ..... There are * * * 180 commanders, 500 in one battalion and hundreds in 36 commanders. "This separates the responsibilities of combatants and logistics personnel to a certain extent, which is conducive to improving combat effectiveness and maintaining the timeliness and efficiency of logistics support. It can be seen that the commander-in-chief is only a person related to the camp, not in the official establishment, and is a "husband" rather than a "soldier". The long-term husband system was initiated by Zeng Guofan and followed by other armies. Mr. Wang commented that "the nature of long-term husband service is very similar to that of modern engineers, but it is still not perfect." As far as China's military system is concerned, this is a great progress. "The army of Xianghuai has a long husband and should be the birthplace of China special engineers." This can be said to be the best interpretation of the importance of a long-term husband and the scope of his tasks.
In terms of logistics system, Xiang Army is also rigorous and effective. Zeng Guofan's pay voucher influenced Yong Ying in the southeast provinces between Xianfeng and Tongzhi, and later Huai Army and Yuan Shikai also used this pay voucher for small-station training, only with a slight modification. The army's wage chapter establishes the wage and food distribution system: the wages and food of battalion officers, deputies, doctors, craftsmen and brave men are graded in detail and set restrictions. No matter how big or small an official is, how much he earns a month or how many husbands he has, it all depends on the number of soldiers he brings. The advantages of this system are as follows: compared with green camp, the rations of soldiers are increased, so that soldiers can concentrate on operational defense and raise one soldier for another; Prevent abuse and use it to keep honesty. From the year of Tongzhi *** 12 yuan, the number of personnel reached 120,000, and the military supplies used were less than 30 million. Xianfeng three years ago, there were only 97,000 soldiers in green camp, and the military expenditure reached 25 100000, which shows the effectiveness of military supplies.
2. The logistics organization and command system of Beiyang Navy.
If the progress of the army's logistics system is mainly reflected in the Xiang Army and the Huai Army, then the naval logistics reform is concentrated in the construction of the Beiyang Navy. 1885 The Prime Minister's Office of Naval Affairs was added, giving priority to the development of Beiyang Navy, equipped with foreign advanced artillery, and the ships were also adjusted and strengthened. Beiyang Navy is a new type of modern naval force, and its combat mode is quite different from that of the old navy, and its material consumption is also extremely alarming. It needs professional technicians and machinery factory to operate and maintain. Li Hongzhang said: "The most urgent task is to raise salaries, train generals, repair ships, manufacture instruments, cast munitions, install antennas and store military equipment. Among them, nine times out of ten people imitate western methods, especially those who are good at managing the Olympic Games ..., so there are Qing Litigation Bureau, Fa Shen Bureau, Jia Jia Bureau, Water Resources Bureau, Fund Raising Bureau, Transportation Bureau, Lijin Bureau, Credit Information Bureau and so on. In terms of coastal defense, there are training, security, ordnance, machinery manufacturing, telegraph bureau, dock engineering and other bureaus, as well as battalion headquarters, naval divisions, military equipment schools, hospitals and coal plants, so that the task can be completed without delay. " He emphasized the construction of military expenditure, ordnance, telegraph, wharf engineering and other logistics institutions from local to military, and also expounded Li Hongzhang's modern military logistics thought. 1888, the Constitution of Beiyang Navy was promulgated, which met the requirements of modern naval construction. It is the forerunner of naval military system reform. Regarding the logistics system construction of Beiyang Navy, it is proposed that "the navy behind the road" includes the shipyard responsible for the maintenance of ships and Lushunkou Tiejiashi Wharf, the Ship Machinery Bureau responsible for the purchase and purchase of all the equipment of warships, Dagumu Shipyard and naval pay.
It can be seen that before the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Beiyang Navy had established a set of relatively complete logistics institutions, which was the first step taken by China Army in logistics modernization. Each logistics organization is responsible for one post, and its operation must be based on certain organizational rules. When allocating ordnance, each battalion bureau must first ask Minister Beiyang for it, and then the inspector general will send a document to the Ordnance Bureau, and then the Ordnance Bureau will hand it over to the Transfer Bureau to receive it and transport it to the Ordnance Bureau. The distribution of ordnance should be reported to Minister Beiyang on a quarterly basis.
Second, the logistics support system
Logistics support system is a system that provides supplies, repairs, transportation and medical care for the army. On the other hand, the logistics support system affects the institutional source of logistics material construction and supply, and it cooperates with the logistics organization and command system to form an internal relationship between logistics construction and military operations.
1, material supply guarantee
Material supply guarantee is divided into physical guarantee and capital guarantee. Weapons and equipment are the core of material support, and are in the most important position in military logistics construction, which plays a role in promoting the improvement of the combat capability of the Qing army and the reform of the military system. Generally speaking, in logistics construction, the Qing army took a road from outsourcing to imitation and self-control. In the era of cold weapons and old firearms, the production, storage, transportation and repair of weapons and equipment were completed by the state as a whole. /kloc-After the 1960s in 0/9, the demand for foreign guns, foreign guns and foreign ships increased gradually, but there was no production capacity, so we had to buy and borrow them. 1862, Zeng Guofan founded "Anqing Inner Ordnance Institute" and began to make guns. 1In August, 868, Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau built the China No.1 steamboat and named it "Tianji". At this point, China's modern weapons and equipment funds began to take the road of self-control. Since then, modern ordnance enterprises such as Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, Jinling Manufacturing Bureau, Tianjin Machinery Manufacturing Bureau, Guangdong Manufacturing Bureau and Hubei Gun Factory have been established one after another. With the development of national defense industry, the Qing army has made considerable achievements in the modernization of weapons and equipment and coastal defense. 1888, beiyang fleet was formally established, and the tonnage of ships has become a remarkable maritime force in the world at that time. However, due to the coexistence of outsourcing and self-made, it is difficult to buy and copy different types of guns and accessories from different countries, which makes maintenance and replenishment difficult. The weapons and equipment support of the Qing army in the Sino-Japanese War can be said to be of mixed models, poor quality and insufficient quantity. Funding guarantee includes the raising, distribution, exchange, reserve and consumption of military expenditure. The way of military expenditure directly reflects the process of military modernization: before the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, military expenditure was mainly military pay; After the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, a large amount of military expenditure was used for the equipment of modern weapons and equipment, and military expenditure only accounted for a small proportion. The guarantee of funds is closely related to the national financial system. Compared with pre-modern times, the biggest financial change of the Qing government was the rise of the "local fund-raising" system in suppressing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom movement. Before the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, military power and salary increase were controlled by the central government, and salaries were uniformly distributed by inpatient departments. During the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, Xiang Army, Huai Army and Lian Army rose because of the situation. Due to the central financial crisis, the generals raised funds on the spot, which formed the situation in Enemy at the Gates, and the Qing government gradually lost control of military power. "When marching, you must raise your salary in person and you can't feed on others." In this way, things such as raising salaries, training troops and manufacturing machinery are all decided by provincial governors. The autocratic power of the governor not only occupies an important position in the political history of the late Qing Dynasty, but also has an important impact on the reform of the logistics system, which not only makes it difficult for the Qing government to expand the channels for raising military expenses, but also makes it difficult to truly realize the unity of logistics command.
Judging from the types of repayment sources, tax is the basic source of military expenditure in the middle and early Qing Dynasty. During the Westernization Movement, due to the purchase of advanced weapons and equipment and the establishment of military industry, the expenses kept rising, and the method of raising military expenditure also changed greatly. The main sources of payment are Diding, Alvin, salt administration, customs duties and lijin. There are no changes in the first two, such as the increase of salt policy, the increase of import and export trade volume and the change of tax rate. Lijin has become an indispensable and important source of military expenditure in various places. The establishment of Hubei Bureau began in Xianfeng five years. In two years, Xiangyang Bureau alone drew more than RMB 1.4 million. Hunan set up a bureau before Hubei. Thanks to Zeng Guofan's efforts, from 1855 to 1864, the Xiang army basically formed three major bases of reimbursement, namely, Yali in Jiangxi, Banli in Hunan Dongzheng Bureau, Li Yue in Guangdong and Lijin, which became the most stable and main sources of reimbursement for the Xiang army.
2, transportation and communication security system
The Qing army also made great progress in the transportation and transshipment system. Since modern times, with the adoption of modern modes of transportation with ships and trains as tools, traditional modes of transportation have gradually withdrawn from the historical stage. Zeng Guofan established a navy division in the Xiang army, carrying combat supplies at ordinary times and serving as a water attack in wartime. Since then, after repeated argumentation, several railways have finally been built. Together with the railway in Taiwan Province Province, during the thirteen years from 188 1- 1894, * * only built more than 300 kilometers of railways. The proportion of railways in land transportation is not large. The munitions used by the Eight Banners stationed in various provinces and green camp mainly rely on manpower and animal power, and its progress is undoubtedly revolutionary.
In terms of communication, from 65438 to 0886, China Telegraph Bureau was divided into Beiyang Telegraph Bureau and Telegraph Merchant Bureau, and Sheng Xuanhuai was the general manager of the Telegraph Merchant Bureau. In fact, he has been in charge of the overall situation of the China telegram. The General Administration of Telegraph has several sub-bureaus along the route, and each sub-bureau has directors, clerks, operators and craftsmen. There is a reception room and a patrol room along the way under the sub-bureau to guide green camp personnel to patrol. 1879 Li Hongzhang piloted the telegraph office between Tianjin and Dagu, which was an experimental military special line; The Jin-Hu line opened on 188 1 has a total length of more than 3,000 miles and is the first long-distance telegraph line in China. Although its management mode is official and commercial, it also has extremely important national defense and military value. However, due to limited funds, China telegraph lines only have land lines but no sea lines, and land lines are vulnerable to natural and man-made disasters, which can be confirmed from the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.
Third, the impact and analysis
Since the Opium War, the western strong guns not only shocked the minds of China people, but also changed the way and process of the war, and put forward completely different requirements and challenges for military logistics compared with the cold weapon era. It should be said that the effectiveness of military logistics construction from the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War has made great progress compared with that before modern times. First of all, the degree of logistics specialization has been strengthened, and logistics has gradually separated from the army. Not only has a special logistics organization been established, but logistics personnel also perform their respective duties together with combatants. For example, Xiang Huai Army's long-term husband system and Beiyang Navy's back road bureau. Secondly, the modern logistics organization guarantee system has begun to take shape, such as grain platform and transshipment bureau. In terms of logistics support:
First, the establishment and development of military industry has provided a guarantee for the modernization of military weapons and equipment and touched the basic industries of society.
Second, the sources of military expenditure have been broadened, which has ensured the huge expenditure of modern army building.
Third, the application of modern transportation and communication means in military logistics support. It is precisely because of these modern advances that the Qing government had the Xiang-Huai Army and the emerging Beiyang Navy equipped with a certain number of foreign guns, which were more suitable for the needs of modern foreign wars than green camp. The Battle of the Yellow Sea in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 is a typical example of China navy's maritime operations in a modern way. On the land battlefield, there has also been a situation in which steps, riding, guns and workers work together.
The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 was a comprehensive test of the construction of the Qing army since modern times. There are many reasons for its failure. Strategically speaking, the Sino-Japanese War was a contest of comprehensive national strength between China and Japan. Its failure is due to political and economic factors, but its direct cause is still military, indicating that there are still many defects in the military logistics system before the war:
First of all, this is also the most deadly, scattered and ineffective command. Because the armies of all systems rely on their own salaries to maintain their troops and carry out their own military logistics construction on this basis, on the surface, many logistics departments have been set up within each army, but once a large-scale war comes, there will be a passive situation of poor coordination and fragmentation; There are many armies, and many orders are subordinate to each other. The central military logistics system and the military logistics system have overlapping rights and responsibilities, and lack of top-down and powerful logistics command organs, which was confirmed in the rapid defeat of the Qing army in the Sino-Japanese War.
Second, the institutional setup is incomplete and the degree of attention is not enough, which leads to poor logistics support. During the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the failure of military provisions and firearms in time was an important reason for the defeat of the Qing army.
Third, although the Westernization Movement played an indelible role in promoting the modernization of weapons and equipment of the Qing army, due to the backward level of science and technology and underdeveloped basic industries, weapons and equipment, transportation and communication could not meet the needs of modern warfare and could not provide high-quality raw materials for military enterprises.
Fourth, there is still a gap between the logistics system and the western logistics system: a long-term husband or a husband, not a soldier; In addition, according to the western military system, a combat unit of about 10,000 people should have its own logistics department, and the central government should have a general logistics department to coordinate the logistics institutions of various military regions and make macro arrangements. However, due to the decline of the central power in the Qing Dynasty, the distribution of military materials was controlled by local and powerful factions. These defects made the Qing army pay a painful price in the Sino-Japanese War. The Qing government was determined to reform the military system, and the new military logistics system had a chance to change.
The reform of military logistics system was not only influenced by people's ideological level at that time, but also restricted by the national military system and national economic system. Macroscopically, the military system is the main part of the national organization system, and the logistics system is an important part of the military system. Therefore, the logistics system will also be restricted and influenced by national politics, economy, military and other comprehensive factors. In other words, the reform of China's modern military logistics system was not only a military issue, but also restricted by the political, economic and ideological situation in the late Qing Dynasty.