Bismarck's Diplomacy during the Bulgarian Crisis
In the five years after the Berlin Conference, German Prime Minister Bismarck established a country including Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy,
The complex alliance system of Romania and other countries, Europe's international politics was once dominated by Bismarck Alliance, and Berlin became Europe.
The center of the European diplomatic arena. 1885 Bulgaria crisis brought Bismarck Union to the brink of collapse.
Based on the fierce diplomatic competition among European powers during the crisis, this paper discusses the diplomatic and international environment of European powers in the late19th century.
Some characteristics of.
( 1)
After the Franco-Prussian War, a unified and powerful Germany rose in Europe, completely changing the international political environment in Europe.
At the same time, the transformation has produced a German problem that has puzzled the world for a century: Germany's natural advantages and other European countries.
Economists do not accept the contradiction of this advantage. The defeat of 1 not only deprived France of Alsace and Lorraine, but also deprived it of its existence in the European continent.
Its dominant position has greatly worsened its geopolitical environment. In this way, France will become an irreconcilable country for Germany.
This country. It is difficult for France to deal with Germany alone. France needs both to protect itself and to prepare for revenge.
Make an alliance with any country hostile to Germany. This will aggravate the crisis involving Germany and make it difficult to localize it, because
This also limits the basic trend of German diplomacy. In Bismarck's view, isolating France, maintaining the status quo in Europe and defending Germany.
Safety is one thing. The international environment facing Bismarck is extremely complicated: in order to isolate France, Russia, Austria-Hungary and
The conservative alliance of Germany's three monarchies asked him to exert influence on the development of Russia-Austria relations, which were too close.
So that no matter Germany or fighting for the Balkans, it will damage Germany's diplomatic status in Europe. In Russia
German friendship is regarded as the cornerstone of German diplomacy, and it cannot offend Britain, which is sharply opposed to Russia in the Near East and Central Asia. 18
75- 1878 The crisis in the Near East reflects the limitation of Bismarck's policy relative to the historical environment: the intensification of the contradiction between Russia and Austria.
It was difficult for Bismarck to avoid the choice between Russia and Austria for a long time. Bismarck sought it temporarily through the German-Austrian alliance of 1879.
This is the way out. The true destination of the alliance is the alliance of Russia, Austria and Germany formed in June of 188 1, which enabled Germany to continue to maintain.
Containment factors in Russia-Austria relations and their mediation status.
1885 In September, a revolution took place in the eastern Rumilia province of Turkey, and it announced its merger with the Principality of Bulgaria. Always to protect Canada.
Tsar Alexander III, who claimed to be the protector of Leah, could not tolerate two things being realized by the hand of Archduke Alexander who did not obey him.
The unification of land consolidated Dagong's position in Bulgaria. Russia tried to force Bulgaria to accept it through the coordination of major powers.
The merger was cancelled, but the fait accompli of Bulgaria's reunification was irreversible. Russia's Bulgaria policy is facing unprecedented failure,
A new crisis is brewing in the Balkans.
1886 65438+ 10, the fanatical chauvinist boulanger became the minister of the French army, which set off a demand in France.
In the frenzy of revenge in Germany, the relationship between Germany and France suddenly became tense.
Two crises happened at the same time, and Bismarck Union faced a severe test. At the same time, Bismarck regarded it as the foundation of German diplomacy.
San huang League is about to expire, and there is no hope to renew it. The international situation may be completely out of control, and Bismarck was afraid in his dream.
The trend of things being attacked is about to become a reality. If Germany adopts the policy of supporting Austria-Hungary in the competition between Russia and Austria in the Balkans,
It is necessary to bear the consequences of the breakdown of Russian-German relations, thus providing France with potential allies. And it was completely ruled out under the circumstances.
In order to give up the possibility of Austria-Hungary.
Maintaining the independence and great power status of Austria-Hungary is an important part of Bismarck's European order. Once Austria and Hungary are under external pressure,
Disintegration will not only endanger the balance of power in Europe, make German diplomacy lose room for manoeuvre, but also break the internal micro-structure of the German Empire.
Wonderful political balance. 2
Bulgarian crisis 1885- 1887 reopened the Eastern issue and created the prospect of confrontation between Russia and Austria. Etu
In the war, the Russian army fought bloody battles, and 200,000 soldiers died in the battlefield, but the harvest was hard to swallow. 65438+September 0886, Yali
Archduke Alexander was forced to abdicate under the pressure of Russia. 165438+ 10 in June, the czar's special envoy Kaulbars failed to force the Bulgarian regent authorities to advance.
Name Russia's favorite archduke candidate and return in vain. Russia broke off diplomatic relations with Bulgaria and lost its influence in Bulgaria.
The emperor's "dignity" was trampled to the extreme. In the Balkans, Russian troops are about to invade and trigger a big country conflict.
Critical situation.
Once Russia enters Bulgaria, it will control Romania. Hungary will be located in Poland and Romania in Russia.
Surrounded by Bulgaria on three sides. The Danube lifeline between Austria and Hungary may also be cut off. Maintain the momentum in the Balkans.
Power and influence are not only the symbol of Austria-Hungary's great power status, but also the foundation of the empire's survival. 165438+1October 13, Austrian-Hungarian Foreign Minister Carnaud
Speaking at the Hungarian parliament, he said: Russia has no right to occupy Bulgaria and decide its fate alone, otherwise it will go to war. soon
Domestic public opinion has exploded, and it is generally believed that Russia-Austria coordination has lost its meaning. Russian troops and pan-Slavs are considering a military strike against Austria-Hungary.
Strike.
The most direct purpose of Bismarck Alliance is to contain Russia and Austria and prevent conflicts between the two countries. His basic strategy at this time is to realize the reality of the two countries
Two-way restraint prompted the two countries to resolve their differences within the framework of the alliance of the three emperors. In view of the tough measures that Austria and Hungary may take with the encouragement of Britain
The policy is tough, and he has repeatedly warned that Bulgaria is Russia's sphere of influence, and the German-Austrian alliance is only defensive, so it is necessary to help.
Busy looking for England. As for Russia, he said many times that Germany is willing to support Russia's Bulgaria policy, but Austria-Hungary is a big country.
Status cannot be sacrificed, and the way out lies in Russia and Austria reaching a compromise on dividing the Balkan sphere of influence. four
Bismarck played the role of "honest broker". Although he temporarily avoided the question of choosing between Russia and Austria, it meant that.
And alienate the two countries. The Austro-Hungarian Empire cannot help asking: "What is the value of the German-Austrian alliance?" "Germany has two alliances.
Friends, only half of Austria and Hungary. "If the conclusion of the 1879 German-Austrian alliance intensified Russia's sense of isolation and forced it to return.
On the track of alliance with Germany and Austria, it can only deepen Russia's hostility at this time. In October, the tsar was in
When meeting with the new French ambassador to Russia, Rabli, he said: Russia wants France to be strong, and the two countries need to work together to tide over the difficulties.
. On the one hand, this expression is the result of the failure of Kaulbars's mission and the deepening frustration of the Tsar, and it is also the result of the Parliament of Kalnoki.
Response to the speech. If we want to solve the Bulgarian problem according to Russia's wishes, we must eliminate Austria's obstruction. The strength of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and
Does not pose a threat, the key is the German-Austrian alliance. If Russia wants to wage war against Austria-Hungary, or make Russia's war threat appear.
As a result, we must prevent German intervention in advance. The only hope is in France. There are signs that the Russian military and pan-Slavic
School, through the famous newspaper, the conservative nationalist Katokov had a decision-making tendency imposed on the tsar from the end of 65,438+00.
Have a great influence. In order to contain Germany, the czar may drastically change the European policy, and the prospect of an alliance between France and Russia looms.
Bismarck alliance system is in danger of collapse. The Brownian fever movement provided Bismarck with a good opportunity to get out of trouble.
(2)
After the founding of the Third Republic, the political situation in France has been turbulent. In the first half of 1980s, during the reign of Ferry Cabinet, France
There was also a good period of "colonial agreement" in German relations. However, Alsace and Lorraine have always had difficulties in their relations.
Heal the wound. 1885 the downfall of Philip's "colonial cabinet" marked the rise of French revanchist forces. famous
By July of 1886, the patriotic union, a nationalist group led by the poet de rulaide, had more than100000 members, which became French politics and
A force to be reckoned with in social life. After Blanchett entered the cabinet of Charles Ferretti as the secretary of the army, he became a temporary
A symbol of France's revival, recovery of lost territory and revenge on Germany. The relationship between France and Germany began to deteriorate in the autumn of 1886.
Bismarck was not afraid of the power of France, even a vengeful France. Its eyes are always fixed on the east.
. The complexity of the problem lies in the fact that the two crises occurred almost simultaneously. Once Germany is involved in the conflict between Austria and Russia in the Balkans, it is hard to count on France.
Congress stood by. At that time, Germany had to face up to the cold reality of fighting on two fronts.
1in the summer of 886, druids visited Russia and advocated an alliance between France and Russia. In June, Katokov appeared in Moscow News.
Write an article criticizing Foreign Minister Gilles' European policy and calling for a fundamental change in Russia's diplomatic line. He pointed out that Russia will smoke.
It is a historic mistake to put the principle of sovereign unity above one's own national interests. Russia must get rid of the shackles
Restore freedom of diplomatic action. 7 is called Attack of Katokov.
At that time, the political systems of France and Russia were very different, and there were serious differences in strategic interests and strategic priorities. The two countries did not stand together.
The possibility of an alliance. France will not support Russia's current Balkan politics at the expense of its long-term interests in the Near East.
Policy. Russia is even less likely to help France recover Alsace and Lorraine, risk destroying the status quo, and make friends with Germany. but
However, if the pressure and frustration are too strong, France and Russia may form a meeting point of interests in order to get rid of difficulties. No one can guarantee that.
The two countries will not come together in the end. 1887 65438+ 10, Russian special envoy shuvalov visited Germany with the purpose of bridging differences and mending Russia-Germany relations.
Later, Russia's silence further confirmed Bismarck's suspicion that Russia might change its policy. Bismarck's Adjustment Strategy
Slightly, I am determined to use the existing diplomatic resources of Germany and the developments in France to seek a contract for reorganizing Germany's diplomatic lineup.
Machine.
After the Bulgarian crisis, there was a fierce diplomatic competition between Britain and Germany. Neither country is willing to take the lead in intervening and be enemies with Russia.
At the same time, China needs to avoid being isolated in the European diplomatic arena in the future. If it can arouse the mutual relationship between the other side and Russia,
With checks and balances, China's diplomacy will gain unprecedented initiative. British Prime Minister Salisbury expressed deep doubts about Bismarck's intentions.
I am worried that once Britain and Russia confront and conflict on the Balkan issue and get involved in Balkan affairs, Bismarck will take the opportunity to break up.
France. Britain's strategy is to urge Austria-Hungary to act as an anti-Russian pioneer in the Balkans, so that Germany, which undertakes alliance obligations with Austria-Hungary, does not.
This road can be avoided. Bismarck, on the other hand, exaggerated the tension on the German-French border, created public opinion that war was imminent, and threatened French politics.
Fu, don't go too far in expanding your army and preparing for war. Enemy with Germany will not lead to good results. At the same time, it showed Britain, Austria and Russia that Germany must
There is no time to take care of the Franco-German crisis, and the Balkan crisis can only be solved by those countries with immediate interests in the region.
Solve. eight
The triple alliance concluded by 1882 will expire in May 1887, and all parties are not interested in the alliance. But with
The Franco-German crisis and the Bulgarian crisis occurred at the same time, and the importance of Italy in Bismarck's mind increased significantly. Bismarck
Taking February 1887 as an opportunity and at the expense of supporting Italy's expansion policy in North Africa, Sanlian Alliance strengthened its internal structure.
Unity prevented hostile countries from wooing Italy, and at the same time won a safe and stable rear for Austria-Hungary to deal with Russia.
More importantly, this is based on Italy as a bridge to establish the same interests with Italy on colonial issues, and
The close cooperation between Britain and triple alliance countries has created conditions.
At that time, there was a sharp contradiction between Britain and France because of 1882, when Britain unilaterally occupied Egypt. Blanche
The chauvinism of the movement is also directed at Britain. If Britain can win the support of the three countries on the Egyptian issue,
It will greatly strengthen its position in the negotiations with France. If we can urge Britain to adopt an attitude of resolutely safeguarding the status quo in the Balkans,
Policy, and mobilize enough power to contain France and Russia in the Near East, the security of Austria-Hungary will be guaranteed, and Germany will be able to.
It is enough to avoid direct involvement in near east affairs and conflict with Russia. In order to put pressure on Britain, Bismarck said: Germany is on the mainland.
By living in France, Britain and Italy gained freedom of movement. Britain and Italy jointly contain France in North Africa and cooperate with Austria-Hungary in the Near East.
With Russia, the balance of power and peace in Europe can be maintained. But if Britain does not participate in European politics, it is doomed to be lonely.
Germany has no reason to oppose France's expansion in North Africa and Russia's expansion in the Near East. 9 Bismarck's incitement
1887 In February, Britain and Italy exchanged notes, and in March Austria and Hungary joined in the form of notes. These three countries concluded the first Mediterranean.
Agreement and commitment to maintain the status quo in the Mediterranean.
After the formation of the Mediterranean, the French government further realized the unreality and danger of the policy of alliance with Russia. law
The more urgent China's desire for alliance is, the higher the Russian asking price will be. If we can't meet Russia's requirements, it will be meaningless.
Resentment What's more, it will also induce Germany to launch a "preventive" war. 10 If France supports Bulgaria in Russia,
Policies need to bear the consequences of confrontation with all European countries. 1 1 The French government must take the initiative to ease the relationship between France and Germany in order to avoid
Fall into the diplomatic trap set by Bismarck. In May, the French government dismissed Blanche, and the Franco-German crisis tended to ease.
(3)
Germany is located in central Europe, facing the sea on one side and surrounded by the sea on three sides. An active and effective oriental policy is the cornerstone of German diplomacy. if
Germany and Russia have been opposed for a long time, and German diplomacy is a dead chess game. On the contrary, Germany can manipulate freely between East and West, and advance and retreat freely.
In Bismarck's view, isolating France and uniting Russia are two sides of the same problem. There is a crisis in Bulgaria.
Since then, Bismarck, on the one hand, encouraged Russia to carry out the forward policy in the Balkans, on the other hand, mobilized to resist Russian expansion.
Union for the Mediterranean. At the same time, it also proves the value of German friendship to isolated Russia. 12
Russian Foreign Minister Giles believes that whether it is to ensure the security of Russia's Black Sea region or to solve the Bulgarian problem, Russia
All countries need to maintain the Russian-German-Austrian alliance, or at least maintain friendly cooperation with Germany. At present, France and Russia are allied against Russia.
No, France cannot form an alliance with Russia. If Russia loses Germany, it will mean complete isolation. 13 as for the tsar
Alexander III's attitude, as the then German ambassador to St. Petersburg Venicz pointed out: "The czar comes from diplomacy.
Policies need to be considered and must be United with Germany. From the perspective of conforming to public opinion and domestic stability, it must be open.
This occasion shows an aversion to Germany. " 14
Katokov's editorial published in March deeply hurt the czar and put him in a very embarrassing position. This article reveals three things.
The emperor allied himself with this secret and lashed out at it. This forced the czar to either abandon his alliance with Germany or make a public statement.
Support the san huang League, which is exactly what the czar tried to avoid. The tsar punished Katokov in a rage.
The decline of Katokov's influence reflects the consolidation of Gilles' position.
In view of the tsar's categorical refusal to renew the treaty with Austria-Hungary, in May, Russia and Germany resumed negotiations in Berlin to prepare for bilateral cooperation with Russia and Germany.
Will replace the original san huang League. When discussing the neutral clause, Bismarck tried to seduce by fully supporting Russia's Near East policy.
Let Russia agree that Germany is conditionally neutral in the case of Russia-Austria conflict. So Bismarck read it to Russian negotiators.
This paper introduces the text of 1879 German-Austrian Alliance Treaty, so as to show that Germany has no intention to undertake obligations that violate the contents of the German-Austrian Alliance Treaty.
1887, 18 In June, when France and Austria were attacked by both contracting parties, Russia and Germany made reservations about the neutrality clause.
Next, sign a new contract, that is, a reinsurance treaty. In Bismarck's view, although the treaty failed to ensure that in the case of Russian-German conflict,
Russia's unconditional neutrality, in view of the different attitudes of France and Germany to the status quo since 187 1, the alliance that France needs must be
It must be offensive, and the reinsurance treaty at least excludes this possibility. If France can't win Russia's victory in advance,
Support, it is impossible to challenge Germany alone. The status quo, peace and Germany's security are all guaranteed.
Through the Reinsurance Treaty and the previous German-Austrian Alliance Treaty, Bismarck re-established the right
German-Austrian bidirectional inhibition. Bismarck took this opportunity to show Russia and Austria that Germany will always stand with the attacked party to resist the invasion.
A little. Whoever destroys peace in Europe is the enemy of Germany. However, Bismarck must also face up to another danger, such as Russia.
If Austria-Hungary is provoked to attack first, how will Germany respond? 15 Around the signing of reinsurance treaty, inside Russia
The struggle, the vacillation of the czar's position and Russia's endless demands on Germany and Bulgaria after the signing of the treaty made it difficult to give them.
Smythe greatly devalued the treaty. His confidence in the friendship between the czar and Germany and Russia was irrevocably shaken. 16
1In July, 887, Ferdinand of Coburg was elected as the Grand Duke of Bulgaria and Russia V against the wishes of the czar.
All possible increases in strength. The Russian media is full of abuse against Germany. In August, Druid attended Katokov's funeral.
Machine, visit Russia again. Bismarck was deeply worried about the current situation. Since Russia is unreliable, Germany must find another way to prevent it.
Just in case. 17
In May, France and Russia * * * forced Sudan to abandon the agreement reached by British special envoy Wolff and Turkey on Britain's withdrawal from Egypt.
Withdrawal plan. The trend of French-Russian cooperation has aroused the vigilance of Britain and Germany. Salisbury is worried that if Austria-Hungary gets it
If we are forced to compromise with Russia without assistance, we may return to the isolated and passive situation that was extremely unfavorable to Britain during the Three Kings Alliance.
18 Bismarck took the opportunity to send the text of the German-Austrian alliance treaty to London and wrote to Salisbury on165438+1October 22nd. alphabet
"If the independence of Austria-Hungary is threatened by Russian aggression, or Britain and Italy are in danger of being invaded by France, Germany will launch it.
It is the responsibility to adopt the policy of advance. "19 1887 65438+ February after Britain confirmed the degree of German support to Austria-Hungary.
12 and 16, Britain, Austria and Italy exchanged notes and reached the second Mediterranean agreement, basically excluding Russia.
The possibility of China occupying Bulgaria, or holding Sudanese hostage and controlling the Turkish Strait. If Russia provokes Austria-Hungary, it will be countered by Britain.
Around Austria and Italy. In this context, Russia began to retreat. 1888 65438+ 10 Russia, with the support of Germany, requested the Turkish government.
The government declared Ferdinand's election illegal and was boycotted by Britain, Austria and Italy. In April, Turkey met Russia's demands. Russian army
Saved some face, and then Bulgaria's problems went away.
(4)
The reinsurance treaty and the Mediterranean agreement have caused the mutual containment of Britain, Austria, Italy, France and Russia in the Near East and the Mediterranean.
At the same time, it prevented the combination of France and Russia and ensured Germany's dominant position in the European continent. However, Bismarck's system includes
The balance of power favorable to Germany is very complicated and contradictory, and it is fragile in nature. So his appearance.
In the final analysis, this is still only a stopgap measure to delay the problem.
As a master of realistic politics, Bismarck took diplomatic art to the extreme. Realistic politics contributed to the unification of Germany.
Bismarck's fascination with real politics finally made the unified Germany suffer. Although with the unification of Germany
First, Bismarck changed from the destroyer of the status quo to the defender of the status quo, but the situation is not what it used to be. In the wave of nationalism
Under this impact, the principle of monarchical unity advocated by him has lost its dominance. Naked pursuit of power has become the maintenance of all countries.
The basic means of self-security and interests has added new unstable factors to international relations. 2 1 Attack of Katokov
This is an ironic response to Bismarck.
In Bismarck's era, the relationship between European powers became increasingly rigid and tense. The reunification of Germany made Central Europe lose its history.
Buffer effect, it can no longer provide vigilance and compensation space for the hegemony of big countries, thus completely changing it.
Changed the power structure in Europe. The loosening of relations between major powers on which balanced diplomacy depends is disappearing, and the symbol is 1879.
The conclusion of the German-Austrian alliance in. In fact, it is difficult for Germany to make other choices. Bismarck's alliance is for this change.
Instinct, which in turn consolidates and strengthens this trend.
The tension between great powers is the reason for the establishment of Bismarck Union and the necessary condition for maintaining it. Bismarck
Diplomatic style embodies the mentality of combining conceit with anxiety. In order to prevent the alliance of hostile forces, Germany established in Europe.
Due to the unshakable leadership of the African continent, it is necessary to maintain moderate tension among major powers. If there is tension between allies,
He encourages cooperation, and once they live in harmony, he withdraws his support and creates friction. However, Bismarck's strategy also
It may win allies for Germany, but it often makes Germany lose friends. Germany at that time essentially belongs to the present.
For the rising Germany, the reputation of dishonesty may be more dangerous than belligerence. European countries versus Germany
Policy self-confidence and trust are prerequisites for maintaining Germany's diplomatic status. Bismarck's strategy often has the opposite effect. follow
With the gradual tension in Europe, an international environment full of hostility, suspicion and insecurity began to emerge.
At the same time that the relations between major powers began to be rigid and tense, German policy gradually lost its balance and flexibility. Bismarck 10 month
In his letter to his son, Mai hinted that once Russia and Austria go to war, no matter who is the attacker, Germany has no choice but to take sides.
Fight for the Austro-Hungarian Empire. When Bismarck was on the stage, he was able to arrive with brilliant diplomatic skills and high prestige.
Eliminate the negative consequences of his policies, and there will be no successors after him.
Bismarck resigned on 1890, and the new German authorities abandoned the reinsurance treaty. Four years later, France and Russia formed an alliance, Bismarck's Europe.
The order on the European continent also collapsed.