(1) green life activities
Thomas Hill Green (1836- 1882) was the founder of New hegelianism in England. He was born into a pastor's family in England. 1855 entered Oxford University, 1860 became a graduate student. After 1867, he taught philosophy in this school and was promoted to professor of moral philosophy from 1878. Besides teaching philosophy, he also devoted himself to practical work in education and politics. His major works include Introduction to Hume's Theory of Human Nature (1874), Introduction to Ethics (1883) and Lecture on Political Principles (190).
(2) The integration of Kantism and hegelianism.
Green's role in the formation and development of the new hegelianism in England lies in his fierce criticism of the empiricism represented by Hume, which shook its long-term dominance in British philosophy, and thus introduced German classical philosophy such as Kant and Hegel, making it stand firm in Britain. He pointed out that empiricists reduced human knowledge to some primitive factors, that is, isolated and scattered atomic perception, ignoring the connection between human reason (self-consciousness) and unable to explain the possibility of human knowledge. Empiricism inevitably leads to doubt. Hume's philosophy marks that empiricism has gone bankrupt even at its peak. This means turning to a more dynamic route in Germany.
He called for replacing the scattered and isolated view of empiricism with the emphasis of German philosophy on connection and wholeness. Internal connection embodies the essence of things. A thing can only be true if it is intrinsically related to other things, as a thing in the whole. People's self-consciousness connects all kinds of different things and makes them have internal relations. Real knowledge can only exist in relationships. In order to bring people's various perceptions into the relationship, there must be a comprehensive role of self-awareness.
Green pointed out that people's creative activities are part of infinite eternal consciousness and the expression of the latter. The latter (also known as the universal mind), as the only spiritual principle, eventually constitutes or produces the whole nature. The creation of infinite eternal consciousness of the whole world is embodied in the creation of these limited consciousness. In this way, Green linked the comprehensive function of subject revealed by Kant with the development process of absolute spirit revealed by Hegel.
(3) Morality and politics
Green opposes Mill and Spencer's tendency to explain moral life with natural science. He pointed out that it is supernatural spiritual principles that make people moral. The study of morality should begin with the study of spiritual principles as its root, and begin with metaphysics. This spiritual principle is the embodiment of human self-consciousness as infinite eternal consciousness. It does not obey the law of causality, it is transcendental and free in logic, and human freedom is the premise of its ethical and moral life.
Green pointed out that determinism and libertarianism are one-sided. In order to correctly explain people's freedom and moral behavior, we should combine the role of experience and natural factors with people's free choice. People must be responsible for their actions. Green opposes the ethical hedonism represented by Mill. The purpose of people's moral behavior should be self-realization rather than the pursuit of pleasure. As a moral subject, man is not only a perceptual organism, but also a spiritual subject. As the spiritual subject, people always tend to the mind of the universe, so people's moral behavior is actually directed at God, or God is the ultimate source of all human moral behavior.
Green pointed out that society and the country are a whole with internal relations, and individuals can exist as real members of society only in their internal relations with others and society. Individuals realize their own values and moral goodness while urging others and even the whole society and country to realize goodness. However, Green opposes to regard society and country as things that exist independently outside or above the numerous individuals that make up society and country. They are not ends in themselves, but conditions for creating and maintaining a better life, that is, individuals give full play to their own abilities and values and make them the conditions for real people to live. The more a society or a country can realize its own moral ideals, the more reason it has to exist. The realistic country does not necessarily conform to the national ideas and ideals. In this case, in order to safeguard public welfare and public kindness, citizens can disobey them, propose to amend or abolish them, or even resist them. On the social and political issues, Green tried to reconcile the laissez-faire which advocated the absolute freedom of individuals and the absolutism which advocated the supremacy of the state, which was consistent with the upward adjustment of his philosophy, British empiricism and German classical philosophy.
2. Bradley's absolute idealism.
(1) bradley's life activities
Bradley is the leader of New hegelianism in England. He was born into a pastor's family in England. He entered Oxford University from 1865 and worked as a researcher from 1870 until his death. Due to various diseases, he has been living a lonely life almost without leaving home since 187 1 and has never been married. His main works are Ethical Research (1876), Principles of Logic (1883), Phenomenon and Reality (1893) and Essays on Truth and Reality (19 14).
(2) Bradley's main point of view.
In the first part of Phenomenon and Reality, Bradley accepted Kant's thought method of separating phenomenon from reality. He pointed out that there are contradictions in the material world and its related space, time, movement and cause and effect. Contradiction is deviation, which is untrue. So they can only be phenomena, not reality. In the second part of Phenomenon and Reality, he affirmed and specifically discussed the "absolute" reality of spirituality. He pointed out that there is no reality beyond the spirit, and the more spiritual everything is, the more real it is. The differences between him and Hegel are as follows: first, in Hegel's view, absolute spirit is an objective cosmic spirit, while in Bradley's view, it definitely refers to absolute experience. Absolute experience is the foundation of all existence, it is the organic whole of all limited experience, and it exists in these personal experiences beyond the limited personal experience. Secondly, Hegel's absolute idealism is a kind of pan-rationalism, while Bradley's absolute idealism is obviously irrational. Absolute experience includes not only the experience gained through feeling, but also subjective emotional will and mysterious instinctive experience.
He divides perceptual experience into three types, namely, direct experience (experience in relationship), relative experience (experience in relationship) and absolute experience (experience outside relationship). On the surface, they are a development process from low to high. Direct experience refers to the primitive and chaotic experience that people directly feel. Relative experience is an experience that can be divided into subject and object, reality and phenomenon. Absolute experience transcends all contradictions and opposites, everything retains its own personality and blends into absolute experience without contradictions.
His epistemology is obviously agnostic and irrational. Abstract concepts can't understand concrete reality. It can only be achieved through instinctive experience and intuition. Although his absolute reality is not orthodox Christian God, he still plays the role of God.
3. Bao Sangkui's absolute idealism
Bernard bosanquet (1848- 1923) is one of the representatives of New hegelianism in England, and his influence is slightly less than that of Bradley. He taught at Oxford University after graduation. Besides writing, he also participated in social activities extensively. His main works are: Knowledge and Reality (1885), Logic-Knowledge Morphology (1888), History of Aesthetics (1892), Fundamentals of Logic (1895), and History of Aesthetics.
Bao Sangkui emphasized the individuality of this whole when he affirmed that this whole is indeed a spiritual whole. One of the manifestations of the latter is that everyone is self-contained and has his own world; For everyone, the world is his own world, the conscious process of the formation of his perception, and the extension and regulation of his current perception. The world of different individuals is constructed by similar logical processes such as judgment and reasoning, which are similar. The more individuals develop the process of constructing the world as the object system, the more their worlds coincide with each other, and even more and more merge into a world with the same spirit, that is, the absolute as a spiritual whole. In this unified whole, there are different factors in each individual's world, and there are also the same factors in each individual's different world.
He pointed out that knowledge is the spiritual structure of reality. Local truths are truths because they coincide with each other in the whole truth. The task of empirical science is to provide people with knowledge about facts, and the task of philosophy is to reveal the types of connections between known facts and further integrate scientifically recognized facts into a universal system.
Bao Sangkui advocated social improvement politically and was a member of the liberal party. He explicitly opposed the national theory of liberal thinkers such as Mill and Spencer. He pointed out that the country itself is the embodiment of the public will, and its ultimate goal, like the ultimate goal of its members, is to seek the best life, remove obstacles to achieving universal happiness, and give full play to people's ability as human beings. The coercive measures taken by the state are precisely for this purpose. Therefore, citizens should obey the state. The real country may have defects, but the agents of the country are more likely to do the opposite. 1, Royce's absolute idealism
Josiah Royce (1855- 19 16) is the most representative figure in New hegelianism. 1875 received a bachelor's degree from the University of California, USA, and taught in Luoce and Vendel classes in Germany. After returning to China, he received a doctorate in philosophy from 1878, and taught at the University of California and Harvard University successively. 1892 was promoted to professor, and 19 14 was awarded the alford Philosophy Lecture of Harvard University. His major works are Religious Aspects of Philosophy (1885), Spirit of Modern Philosophy (1892), Concept of God (1897) and World and Individual (1900-/kloc-).
Royce's early philosophical thoughts tend to be objective idealism combined with religion. He thinks it is really a whole concept beyond personal limitations, that is, absolute or infinite thought or God. Personal thoughts and actions, as well as everything else as the object of thought, are all manifestations of "absoluteness" in the final analysis, which are based on absoluteness and integrated into it.
By analyzing human mistakes, he came to the conclusion that the whole human knowledge system is a system with absolute and God as the ultimate benchmark. He pointed out that existence (reality) is always expressed by corresponding concepts. Only by understanding what concepts are and how concepts express reality can we understand what reality is and what the world is. The meaning of ideas can be divided into external meaning and internal meaning. The intrinsic meaning refers to the mission and intention of the concept itself; External meaning refers to the description of the objective external presentation of things. In the final analysis, the external meaning of ideas is subordinate to the internal meaning, because ideas always exist in some intentional background. The meaning of ideas is not to reflect the objective reality, but to reflect people's subjective intentions.
He criticized realism, mysticism and critical rationalism when expounding the theory about the world and the individual. He pointed out that the atomism of reality only sees the individual and ignores the whole, which makes it impossible for people to judge the truth of ideas and thus the truth of reality. The absolute holism of mysticism obliterates heterogeneous and different individuals, making the absolute an unknowable and illusory thing, because the absolute can only be understood by limited concepts. The critical rationalism of Kant, Mill and others uses possible experience to demonstrate the reliability of existence, but in fact it can't give a proper explanation to reality.
He pointed out that reality should be regarded as both individual and absolute, that is, it contains various concrete phases. This is definitely an experience life as the embodiment of will and purpose. Every limited subject and its concept are incomplete or partial realization of this will and purpose, and the complete embodiment of will and purpose is the whole world. Any limited subject and its ideas tend to be whole, and limited individuals can also know themselves in the whole. Individuals are not swallowed up by the whole, they have their relatively independent significance. As far as everyone is concerned, the world he faces is his own world, that is, the realization of his will and purpose.
He pointed out that all finite egos are interrelated precisely because they are unique expressions of infinite will (ego). Individuals should regard their career as a whole, that is, a part of the so-called ideal society or the great cause of the same body, and be loyal to the latter (similar to the ideal kingdom revealed in Kant's Ethics).
2. The philosophy of blanchard, a late American New hegelianism.
Blanchard (1896- 1964) is the most important representative figure in the late New hegelianism. 19 13 after graduating from the university of Michigan, he went to Columbia, Oxford, Harvard and other universities for further study and obtained his doctorate. Later, I went to the University of Michigan and Yale University to teach. His major works are Essence of Thought (1939), Reason and Goodness (19 1), Reason and Analysis (1962), Reason and Belief, etc.
One of his basic viewpoints is to explain the essence of existence with the essence of thinking. He pointed out that the process of thought development is the process of thought realizing its own purpose to achieve truth, which is also the process of mastering the essence of existence. Therefore, the task of philosophy is to clarify the essence of thought. He pointed out that the idea should be regarded as the object of partial realization, while the object is the idea of complete realization. The object is nothing more than the will of the idea or the realization of the internal purpose. Reaching the idea is also reaching the object. The concept here refers to * * *, which is actually a copy of Hegel's absolute concept. The purpose of the concept is twofold, that is, transcendental purpose and intrinsic purpose. The former refers to the object and reality beyond the concept itself, while the latter refers to linking a concept with other concepts and connecting them in the concept network. Generally speaking, the former corresponds to empirical knowledge and the latter to transcendental knowledge. The whole system of knowledge and ideas is a system containing the universality of ideas and the concreteness of reality, and it is a system as a concrete phase. 1, Krone's irrationalism
Krone (1884- 1974) is the greatest representative of German New hegelianism. He was born in breslau and has taught in Frejborg, Dresden, Kiel and Berlin. 1938, he moved to England, 1940, he moved to America. The main works are from Kant to Hegel (192 1- 1924).
Krone was a student of Richter and later turned to New hegelianism. Influenced by the life philosopher Dilthey's Young Hegel, he gave an irrational explanation of the development from Kant to Hegel and thought that Hegel was an irrational person. He interpreted Hegel's absolute concept as thinking about his own super-rational, living life. He pointed out that reality and life are essentially irrational because they are full of contradictions. Hegel's dialectics is rational in form, but irrational in content. Philosophy takes life (that is, spirit and self-consciousness) as the object, while the latter will inevitably produce contradictions in the process of self-knowledge. Empirical science only takes phenomena as the object, unlike philosophy, which does not know itself and will not produce contradictions. If contradictions are found in empirical science, they will be proved wrong. The highest and absolute unity can only be grasped by transcending philosophy and science, rationality and logic. Faith comes first, which transcends the power of reason and completes the cause of reason. Krone's belief is consistent with his irrationalism.
2. Croce's spiritual philosophy
(1) Life activities
Benedetto croce (1866- 1952) is a leading figure in the Italian New hegelianism and one of the most influential philosophers in the west since the 20th century. He experienced a complicated evolution in philosophy and politics. He studied Hegel's philosophy and Marxism under the influence of Labriola and others, and Marxists such as Bernstein also admitted to being influenced by him. 1902, he founded the famous Critique magazine. Generally speaking, his political stance is free. He served as the cabinet minister of the Italian government twice, had illusions about fascism, and later became a staunch anti-fascist. His major works include Philosophy of Mind (or translated Philosophy of Mind), Living Things and Dead Things in Hegel's Philosophy (1907), Aesthetic Principles (19 10) and Ethics and Politics (1936544).
(2) The theoretical system of spiritual philosophy.
Croce inherited Hegel's basic view that absolute spirit is the foundation of the real world, but he also integrated this spirit with people's subjective mind. He pointed out that there is no real existence outside the spirit, and all the objects of experience and understanding are created by the spirit. The existence of nature beyond man and spirit is only a hypothesis of spirit. The object of the spirit can only be what the spirit itself stipulates. Spiritual activities are divided into theoretical activities and practical activities. The former is divided into intuition and concept, while the latter is divided into economy and morality.
Croce pointed out that intuition is the basic activity of the spirit. Everything in intuition is primitive and pure, and there is no difference without combing the categories of time and space. The object in intuition is a hazy object, and the stipulation in intuition is not reflected. Only the intuitive is beautiful. The second form of psychological activity is rationality, that is, cognitive activity of concepts and logic. It is based on intuition. Intuition is an activity about special things, while rationality is a theoretical activity about general things, which is manifested as judgment. Rational activities can't grasp the content of things, only grasp the relationship between things, and only intuition can achieve the content. Economic activities correspond to intuition, which is aimed at special and individual things and refers to all activities with practical purposes, including political activities. Moral activity corresponds to this concept, and its purpose is universality and integrity. The basic framework of Croce's philosophy still belongs to modern system philosophy, but as the core concept of his system, "heart" has less substantive significance and more emphasis on the meaning of activities and actions. He also pointed out that rational cognitive forms such as concepts and judgments have no real meaning, but are just convenient assumptions.
(3) Dialectics of differences
Croce pointed out that there are two kinds of dialectics: the dialectics of contradiction and the dialectics of difference. Intuition, concept, economy and morality are different concepts, and the relationship between them is not opposition and contradiction, but the latter contains the former, that is, the unity of differences. Opposition and contradiction only exist in different concepts. Hegel's fundamental mistake is to confuse the concept of difference with the concept of opposition, so he regards the unity of opposites as universal.
(4) Absolute historicism
Croce pointed out that philosophy and history are unified. History is just a cyclic history of spiritual activities. A historian's understanding and evaluation of the events he studied is to engage in philosophical activities and thus become a philosopher. Croce denied that history itself has its objective law of development, but attributed it to the accumulation of individual and special historical events. Historians understand and evaluate historical materials according to their existing positions and viewpoints, so all real history is modern history. History is often a work of art, like poetry and moral consciousness, there are no rules. He pointed out that Hegel used his theory of conceptual development to explain history, and bringing history into his system was to eliminate history and deny the history of historians.