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Generally speaking, refugees in academic circles refer to people who have lost their land and no attachment and are forced into exile. Some scholars summarize the meaning of refugees as follows: (1) farmers who have lost their land and have nowhere to return; (2) Farmers in exile due to famine or war disaster; (3) farmers begging everywhere; (4) Farmers who blindly flow into cities to make a living due to the disintegration of natural economy and the attraction of urbanization, although they may still keep small plots of land [1](P3). The "disintegration of natural economy" in the above item (4) is mainly the result of the impact of foreign capitalist forces, with a distinctive "modern" color, which is obviously beyond the scope of this article.
From the above definition of refugees, can we think that the separation of farmers as producers and their own means of production-land in China feudal society has become the basic feature of refugees, and "losing land", "famine year" and "war disaster" are the main reasons for the large number of refugees. The following is a further discussion on the causes of refugees in the early Qing Dynasty.
(1) lost land
In feudal society, the loss of land by yeomen and semi-yeomen was mainly due to the land annexation by the landlord class. "Anyone who keeps in good health can't live without land" [1](P5), which shows people's understanding of the importance of land at that time. For farmers, land is the foundation of their livelihood. "Born in Sri Lanka, grew up in Sri Lanka and died in Sri Lanka." Without land, they will lose the foundation of farmers' survival. As the most basic means of production in feudal society, land "has always been the most important means of production and the safest guarantee of wealth in society, so it has always been the ultimate destination of various forms of wealth in feudal society" [2](P 19 1), which naturally became the main object of plunder by the ruling class.
At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the land annexation of the Apocalypse and Chongzhen Dynasties had developed to a very serious degree. The landlord class's endless pursuit of wealth, the so-called "begging for home, endless" [3](P8), caused a large number of farmers to lose their land, have nowhere to stand, and were forced to scatter in all directions. This long-standing irreconcilable social contradiction eventually led to a vigorous peasant uprising in the late Ming Dynasty.
After the establishment of the Qing Dynasty, with a large number of Manchu nobles and Eight Banners soldiers entering the customs, they began to occupy land in the north on the grounds that "the princes and soldiers from the east had nowhere to live" [4] (volume 12). From December of the first year of Shunzhi (1645 65438+ 10) to the first month of the fourth year of Shunzhi (1647 February), there were three large-scale encirclement and suppression campaigns, ranging from counties in Gyeonggi to counties such as Hejian, Luanzhou and Zunhua, and then extended to Shuntian, Baoding and Yi. Since then, the large-scale enclosure movement has come to an end, but enclosure incidents still occur from time to time in some areas, and with the garrison of Manchu Eight Banners, it has expanded from Zhili to Jinan, Dezhou, Linqing, Xuzhou, Taiyuan, Lu 'an, Pingyang and Zhou Pu in Shandong. According to statistics, during this period, the royal family, Manchu nobles and princes of various banners occupied about 22,000 hectares [5] (Volume 5), and the land occupied by the Eight Banners was as high as 1.4 million hectares [6] (Volume 2 1).
Yao, a A Qing Dynasty man, described the situation at that time in "Circle Record" and said, "When you arrive at a village, ride back and forth, and give you ropes to remember the surroundings. Every circle * * * gets a hundred days ",and" If the circle is certain, all houses and fields can be used "[7] (Volume 3 1), even farmers' houses are occupied. As a result of this blackmail, a large number of farmers lost their houses and had to leave their homes to join the ranks of refugees. Some of them moved to Inner Mongolia to reclaim land. For example, among the Han tenants living in Zhuosuotumeng, many are Zhili people who were forced to leave the land occupied by Manchu nobles [8](P87).
(2) Famine and famine
China has been a country with frequent natural disasters since ancient times. Looking through historical records, natural disasters such as water, drought, insects, wind, frost, snow, tsunami and earthquake abound. Drought is "bare land thousands of miles away", flood is "a piece of Wang Yang", and "twenty-four years of history is almost at the same time the history of famine in China" [9](P 158) can be said to be an unpublished theory. According to relevant data, from the first year of Emperor Gaozu (AD 206) to the seventeenth year of Chongzhen in Ming Dynasty (1644), the disaster year was 1242 [2](P237). In the late Ming Dynasty, due to the luxury and corruption of the ruling class, man-made disasters aggravated natural disasters. From the forty-seventh year of Wanli (16 19) to the twelfth year of Chongzhen (1639), natural disasters continued year after year and spread all over the country. In particular, northern provinces such as Shaanxi and Shandong suffered the most. For example, in the first year of Chongzhen (1628), Yan 'an, Shaanxi Province, "There is no rain in one year, and the vegetation is scorched. In August and September, people are fighting for grass in the mountains. ..... 10 months later, when it is full, it will be stripped of its bark and eaten ... by the end of the year, when the bark is used up, it will dig stones on the mountain to eat "[3](P 1 1). In the last years of Chongzhen, insect pests occurred in Shandong and Henan provinces, and "the grass roots and bark were exhausted, and food was the most important thing for the people" [3](P 1 1), which caused the human tragedy of "starvation everywhere" and even "cannibalism". During the 200 years after the establishment of the Qing Dynasty (1644 ~ 1844), disasters still occurred frequently, and the Yellow River burst only 364 times [9](P 159), nearly twice a year on average, which was shocking in terms of frequency and affected area. The small-scale peasant economy under the cruel exploitation and plunder of the landlord class is already very fragile, and it is impossible to have effective disaster prevention and resilience. Every famine, especially the great famine, can only be waiting for death, or running around. Thus, famine has become an inexhaustible source of "hungry people" and "refugees". Since the Qing Dynasty, people who have spread in the history of "westward" and "eastward", that is, the naturalized Tumote Department, Erdos, Chahar Banner in western Inner Mongolia and Zhaowuda, Zhuosotu and Zhelimu Banner in eastern Inner Mongolia, have been driven out of their homes by various sudden disasters.
(3) Military disaster
War and war are also important reasons for farmers' displacement. In the history of China, such as the Yongjia Rebellion at the end of the Western Jin Dynasty and the Soviet Rebellion in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, a large number of refugees appeared. They had to leave their homes in order to escape the war. During the apocalypse of the late Ming Dynasty, the peasant uprising in Chengcheng, Shaanxi Province, and the war of the ruling class to suppress the peasant uprising continued year after year. The war lasted until the early Qing dynasty, lasting for decades, and the war was chaotic, and smoke enveloped dozens of provinces. During this period, there were many progressive wars in nature, but still "like all wars, it inevitably brought all kinds of tragedies, atrocities, disasters and pains" (in Lenin's words), especially the atrocities committed by the ruling class against the rebels, which seriously devastated the social economy, led to a sharp decline in productivity, a large number of farmers fled, and a large area of land was deserted. For example, in Shandong, "the land is barren, one or two people are stopped in one household, and one or two acres are planted in ten acres" [4] (volume 13). In Shanxi, people "fled the most, but the road involved Xu Qiu, and the land was barren" [10] (Volume 9), showing a dilapidated scene everywhere.
At that time, the refugees who moved to Inner Mongolia were not only farmers, but also people from other classes, that is, "at the time of Dingge in the late Ming Dynasty, officials and gentry from Lishan and Shaanxi rose up against the Qing army. If you do nothing after the defeat, go to the Great Wall to avoid disaster. The barren hills are secluded, and crops are planted in the middle. Or they were recruited into Mongolia "[1 1](P258).
In this way, the refugees formed by the above reasons ignored the decrees of the Qing government, overcame many difficulties, and poured into Inner Mongolia in batches. They either cultivated land, or were employed as domestic helpers by local Mongolian princes and landlords, or engaged in other economic activities. Together with the Mongolian people and people of other nationalities, they worked hard to develop the northern frontier, which made the economy of Inner Mongolia, especially the agricultural economy, develop rapidly.
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Mr. Tanaka Zhongmao, a famous Japanese scholar, once pointed out when studying the early immigrants in Mongolia: "In the past, people who came to Mongolia to cultivate crops, such as prisoners, fugitives, criminals and garrison troops, were either forced to move or because of military needs. However, after the Ming Dynasty, many poor people in northern China spontaneously moved to Mongolia and became seasonal or permanent immigrants in a wild goose. " [ 1 1](P258)
Judging from the influx of immigrants from the mainland into Mongolia in the Qing Dynasty, there are still the above two ways: one is the immigration organized by the state for political or military needs at that time; First, the spontaneous migration of the mainland population. The refugees we are talking about obviously belong to the latter. For these mainland Han people who spontaneously moved to Mongolia, they were strictly prohibited by law from the Shunzhi period of the Qing Dynasty.
In the early years of Shunzhi, it was stipulated: "All soldiers in the border areas are open to farm, and grazing outside the reclamation area is not allowed." [ 12]
In the 12th year of Shunzhi (1655), the Qing court issued a ban, forbidding mainlanders to open up pastures outside their mouths [13] (volume 166).
In the seventh year of Kangxi (1668), the Qing court stopped "recruiting people to reclaim land in Liaodong", ordered the northeast to be closed, and set up border guards at nine border crossings, such as Shanhaiguan and xifengkou, to check and prohibit refugees from leaving the country [13] (volume 134). Shanhaiguan and other places are the only places for mainland refugees to enter the northeast and eastern Inner Mongolia, and the side doors are blocked, which also blocks the passage of refugees into Inner Mongolia.
During the Shunzhi, Kangxi and Yongzheng dynasties, the Qing court also issued some bans on Mongolia, such as "prohibiting flags from crossing the border" and "prohibiting hunting across the flag". These bans and the ban on reclamation of pasture constitute the basic content of the policy of sealing Mongolia in Qing Dynasty. In the study of Mongolia's closed-door policy in the early Qing dynasty, there is a view in the academic circles that this policy is completely opposite to the policy of "encouraging reclamation" in the mainland in the early Qing dynasty, but why this phenomenon occurred is rarely involved. The author thinks it is necessary to further explore.
As mentioned earlier, due to the constant wars in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, the social economy at that time was unprecedentedly destroyed, which led to a large number of farmers fleeing in Shandong, Shanxi and other provinces and a large area of land being barren. This situation is not limited to the above provinces, but almost all over the country. "Since the Ming Dynasty, the war was still raging, the county towns were full of thorns, and the household registration decreased" [14](P 1 12), which became the most serious social problem affecting the national economy and people's livelihood at that time. According to some scholars' research, in the eighth year of Shunzhi (165 1), the registered population of Qing Dynasty was1633,326, and the farmland was 2,908,584 hectares. Shunzhi nine years (1652), population 14 483 858, farmland 4 033 925 hectares. The above amount is far from the canon records of the six years of Wanli in Ming Dynasty (1558): the population is 60,692,856, and the farmland is 7013,976 hectares and 28 mu, which is far from [14] (p114
In the feudal society of China, the lubricant for the normal operation of state machines such as bureaucracy and army was mainly the taxes of the peasant class. The so-called "no land, no people, no people and no taxes" simply and clearly explains the inseparable relationship between land, farmers and national taxes. Undoubtedly, the phenomenon of insufficient taxes caused by people fleeing to wasteland in the early Qing Dynasty will directly affect the feudal rule of the Qing Dynasty. Coupled with the continuous use of soldiers in the early Qing Dynasty, the huge military expenditure made the financial situation of the Qing government in a dilemma even more difficult. Therefore, the top priority of the emperor shunzhi, the ruler of the early Qing Dynasty, was how to attract refugees to return to the land, and how to rectify and restore agricultural production as soon as possible became the top priority of all affairs at that time.
It is under this social background that in the sixth year of Shunzhi (1649), the Qing court issued an imperial edict to the whole country, saying, "All those who fled to various places, regardless of their native nationalities, will be widely recruited and incorporated into Jiabao, so that they can live and work in peace and contentment, inspect the uninhabited wasteland here, and the state and county officials will grant them a license to work." [4] (Volume 43)
In order to speed up the implementation of this reclamation order, the Qing court promulgated in the same year: "Every state and county takes recruiting people to persuade the amount of reclamation as its advantages and disadvantages, and the Taoist government takes the diligence and laziness of urging the governor as its most important. At the end of each year, the strokes are pressed separately and loaded into the assessment. " [4] (Volume 43) The amount of persuasion is formally regarded as a part of the performance evaluation of officials, which is enough to show that the rulers attach importance to this issue. At the same time, the Qing court constantly accepted the suggestions of local officials and issued a series of policies that were beneficial to "persuading people to reclaim land", such as relaxing the opening hours and providing cattle, farm tools and seeds to refugees who wanted to cultivate land. In order to get farmers back to the land, they have a good intention. However, the implementation of these policies had to be greatly reduced because the Shunzhi dynasty never stopped using troops against the south. Some people summed up the situation of reclamation at that time and said, "Although the civilian fields in various provinces have gradually opened up, they have not enjoyed themselves." [10] (Volume 1 1) According to the statistics of the people at that time, during the nine years of Shunzhi (1652), the annual income of money and grain of the Qing government was14,859,000 taels, and the expenditure was15,730 taels. In the 12th year of Shunzhi (1655), that is, the year when the Qing court banned foreigners from reclaiming wasteland in Monti, the fiscal balance was still more than 800,000 yuan [14] (p18). In order to solve the contradiction of serious financial shortage, the most important way for the Qing government is to take further measures to make more farmers dependent on the land and strengthen the tax on farmers. Therefore, it is logical to prohibit mainlanders from exporting land for reclamation. Letting them export to open up wasteland is not conducive to the principle of "give whatever you have" in feudal countries, because in Mongolia, the state does not levy land taxes on farmers. Therefore, the policy of banning land reclamation in Mongolia adopted by the Qing court at that time was a reflection of social contradictions at that time. Although there is no lack of intention to prevent Mongolians and Han people from approaching, the purpose of prohibiting mainlanders from flowing into Inner Mongolia is to let them stay in the mainland more, so "giving the difference" is the key to the problem.
It should also be pointed out that the Qing court banned mainlanders from entering Mongolia for reclamation, which was not unrelated to the fact that most of them were refugees. This is because the frontier policies formulated by the rulers in the early Qing Dynasty were based on the premise of stabilizing the political order in the frontier. Refugees, especially a large number of refugees who have lost their means of subsistence, gather together, have no food and clothing, are forced to survive, and it is easy to embark on the road of resisting the rule of the Qing Dynasty. "The security of refugees makes them thieves, and the dispersion of refugees makes them thieves" [7] (Volume 34). The rulers' views on the problem of refugees in the early Qing Dynasty prompted them to attach refugees to the land as soon as possible. It is consistent with the Qing court's prevention of refugees and the prohibition of mainlanders from entering Mongolia for reclamation.
Although Shunzhi dynasty legally prohibited mainlanders from entering Mongolia for reclamation, it was not strictly implemented in accordance with the law, and Kangxi also made some changes in actual implementation. Synthesize the research results of historians (Note: See Tian Shanmao. Mongolian Social System in Qing Dynasty (Commercial Press,1987); Pozdneyev (Russian). Mongolia and Mongols (2), (Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House,1983); Cheng Chongde's18th Century China and the World Frontier Ethnic Volume (Three Seas Publishing House, 1999). ), there are several factors:
First, Mongolia opened up wasteland, set up various official villages to recruit people to cultivate seeds, and built Lama temples in the north and south of the desert, which opened the door for immigrants.
Second, it is related to the Qing court encouraging and guiding Mongols to reclaim their own land. Wang Hao said in "Chasing Jean": "After ten years of Kangxi, land was reclaimed outside the mouth. The emperor sent many people to teach tree art and feed it to cattle, so that all uncultivated land became inner soil. " However, because Mongolians have been engaged in animal husbandry for a long time and are not used to farming, most of the early Mongolians rented their fields to the local Han people for farming, and took advantage of the rent, which is also the reason why mainland refugees were able to settle in Mongolia.
Third, thirty years after Kangxi, the Qing Dynasty continued to fight against Junggar. In order to solve the problem of military supplies of the Qing army on the spot, the Qing court took emergency measures such as "raising private fields" in Mongolia.
Fourth, the local Mongolians, out of the demand for agricultural products, took the initiative to recruit people to reclaim land and welcome the Han Chinese who flowed into Inner Mongolia.
Due to the above factors, the Qing court accepted and acquiesced in the fact that mainlanders came to Mongolia to reclaim land, and took some measures to control the number of immigrants for mainlanders who wanted to enter Mongolia. For example, Zhuosuotumeng Harqin Banner in eastern Inner Mongolia has been allowed by the Qing court since Kangxi, but it is stipulated that "the Ministry of Housing will give 800 tickets every year and replace them every year" [13] (Volume 978). And "every time we recruit people, we export them to the farm in spring and send them back in winter" [13] (volume 979). In the 22nd year of Kangxi (1683), it was also stipulated: "People from the mainland who export trade and farm in Mongolia may not marry Mongolian women. If you get married privately, you find that the married woman is divorced and returns to her family. Those who marry privately will be punished according to local regulations, and Mongolians who marry while knowing their marriage will be punished by 19 each. " [13] (Volume 978) At this time, the regulations no longer prohibit mainlanders from farming in Mongolia, but mainly prohibit Han Chinese from settling in Mongolia, indicating that the Qing government's policy of reclaiming Mongolian land for the people has changed.
As the Kangxi dynasty adopted the policy of relaxing the border ban, the number of people who moved to Inner Mongolia increased significantly. In July of the 46th year of Kangxi (1707), when Emperor Kangxi was patrolling the border, "there were hundreds of thousands of Shandong people, either merchants or fields" [15]. By the fifty-first year of Kangxi (17 12), "there were more than 100,000 people coming and going from Shandong to cultivate land outside the mouth" [16] (Volume 250). In view of this situation, Emperor Kangxi said in his imperial edict: "We are all rich in Iraq, that is, we want to farm outside our mouths. What shall we do if we can't stay? " ..... Later, when Shandong citizens go to farm outside their mouths, they should find out their age, name and place of origin, make records and transfer them for inspection. "[16] (Volume 250) acquiesced in people farming outside their mouths, but asked local officials to register and manage. Yongzheng once continued to implement this policy.
After the Kangxi Dynasty, the population of the Central Plains began to grow rapidly, which led to the decline of cultivated land per capita, and the contradiction between population increase and insufficient food supply appeared. In this case, poor farmers forced by life have moved to border areas with relatively sparse population, and the number of refugees flocking to Inner Mongolia is on the rise. In addition, in the early years of Yongzheng, the famine in Zhili, Shandong and other provinces continued, further expanding the ranks of refugees. Mongolia's land was leased to Han Chinese by princes, nobles and landlords for reclamation, and public pastures were occupied on a large scale. In the second year of Yongzheng (1724), the cultivated land in Chahar Right Banner has reached 29,709 hectares and 25 mu [17]. In the 13th year of Qianlong (1748), Tumote Beizi Banner in Zhuosuotumeng has cultivated land by Han people 1.643 hectares, Harqin Beizi Banner has 400 hectares of 80 mu, and Harqin Chabu Banner has 43 1 80 mu [13] (Volume 99)
The above changes began to attract the attention of the Qing court during the Yongzheng period. For example, an imperial edict in the eighth year of Yongzheng (1730) said: "Chahar used to be a nomadic place in Mongolia. If people are recruited to sow, the nomadic place will be narrow, and it is useless for people to live together in Mongolia. Write Chahar, etc. I found that there was such a place where I was good at recruiting people to plant things. I quickly reported it truthfully to excuse my previous crimes. If it is still hidden, once it is discovered, it will be doubled. " [18] (Volume 98) Here, Yong Zhengdi talked about the reason why nomadic areas are "narrow" and explicitly prohibited "arbitrarily recruiting people to open seeds". During the Qianlong period, this contradiction between agriculture and animal husbandry for land continued to develop. In view of the frequent disputes between Mongolia and China in Inner Mongolia, Emperor Qianlong said with great anxiety: "The border provinces, which are connected with the Mongolian border and mixed with other nationalities, trade and cultivate with each other. As soon as they heard that the local officials had fought with outsiders, they were partial and unfair, and they took the things outside their mouths as unimportant and refused to deal with them. In fact, they have been accumulating disadvantages. " He demanded that "all governors and generals should severely punish local civil and military officials, restrain the military and civilians in the future, forbid bullying Mongolia, and be fair to each other when dealing with alien incidents, so as not to cause trouble" [19] (volume 123). As has been analyzed before, the premise of the Qing court prohibiting mainlanders from reclaiming Mongolian land was to consolidate and safeguard the feudal rule of the country. From this point of view, "JiNing frontier" is the basic principle for the Qing emperors to deal with frontier issues. However, the continuous dispute between Mongolia and China in Inner Mongolia since the late Yongzheng period has constituted an unstable factor in frontier politics and must be resolved. In the 13th year of Qianlong (1748), under the direct intervention of the Qing government, the leased land was gradually recovered from the people, and it was stipulated that "the mu of Mongolian land distributed by the people should be returned to the original owners according to the annual quota." [13] (Volume 979) The following year, Emperor Qianlong issued a ban to completely ban Mongolia. Emperor Qianlong said: "It is an ancient custom in Mongolia to choose aquatic plants and acres for nomadic farming, but if it is not for mainlanders, it depends on farming. During the Kangxi period, Harqin Zasak and other places were vast, and every time they recruited people, they were exported in spring and sent back in winter, so Mongolia was greedy for rent and took in foreigners. Up to now, thousands of people have gradually made the land cheap, so the nomadic land has become narrow and lost their jobs ... I told Zasak and others that Yan Kun belongs to it, and it will accommodate people and increase in the future. Land reclamation should also be strictly prohibited in Onniut Banner, Bahrain, Hexigten, Arukerqin, Aohan and other places, and it shows that the Eight Banners of Chahar are one. " [19] (Volume 348) clearly pointed out that "gradually, the low price per mu of land was announced, so the nomadic land was narrow and lost its industry" was the main reason for land closure.
Above, we briefly investigated the policy and implementation process of mainland people spontaneously moving into Inner Mongolia in the early Qing Dynasty, from which we can see that:
1. The purpose of forbidding mainlanders to reclaim Mongolian land in the early Qing Dynasty was to let the refugees return to their homeland as soon as possible, reclaim wasteland and restore the social economy destroyed by the war. From this point of view, it is not contradictory to the policy of "persuading reclamation" promoted by the Qing court in the mainland. The rulers of the Qing dynasty always had the fear and prevention of refugees, which was also the main reason why they prohibited refugees from migrating.
2. Consolidating and maintaining the feudal rule of the Qing Dynasty and stabilizing the political order in the border areas are the premise and key points for the Qing court to formulate this policy. It is precisely from this point of view that when the Qing government was able to effectively exercise its jurisdiction over mainland refugees, it adopted a more relaxed attitude in the actual implementation of its policies, and once there was a crisis or unstable factor that shook its political stability, it immediately closed the open door. This makes the policy and attitude towards mainland refugees in the early Qing Dynasty show the characteristics of prohibition-limited opening-re-prohibition.
3. The historical process of forbidding Mongolian land policy from formulation to implementation shows that the Qing court paid more attention to Mongolian people. As a feudal ethnic policy, although there is no lack of ethnic segregation, it is mainly to win over and appease the Mongols. Many disputes between Mongolia and China after Kangxi were proved by the fact that the Qing court basically sided with Mongolia. After the Qing army entered the customs, the soldiers of the Eight Banners were overwhelmed by long-term pampering, and Mongolian cavalry became a reliable pillar of the Qing court. Therefore, the Mongols "nomadic land is narrow, to the point of unemployment" is what Emperor Qianlong is most worried about. However, the refugee tide in the early Qing Dynasty had profound social roots, which was not stopped by the artificial "wall" of the ban policy. It can neither restrain the landlord class's annexation of land, nor enhance farmers' ability to prevent and resist disasters, nor can it control the rapid expansion of the population in the mainland and solve the social contradiction of large population and small land. This is the fundamental reason why the Qing court has repeatedly banned mainland refugees since the early Qing Dynasty.
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