1898 (the year of the Reform Movement of 1898 in Xia Dynasty) is an innovative movement promoted by the reformists in China with the support of Emperor Guangxu in Qing Dynasty. Also known as the Reform Movement of 1898 and the Reform Movement of 1898. After the Sino-Japanese War (1895), the national crisis in China became increasingly serious. The reformists Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Tan Sitong and Yan Fu all hope to emulate the model of western countries, carry out political and economic reforms, and strive for national prosperity. The reformists organized societies, founded newspapers and periodicals, set up schools and publicized the idea of political reform, all of which were sponsored by a few bureaucrats. Guangxu accepted the reform plan of the reformists, and in June 1898, 1 1, he promulgated the Ming Ding Guo Shi (don't think I made a mistake, yes, it is "Guo Guo"), announcing the political reform and reform. 103, dozens of reform decrees were promulgated. The main content of the New Deal is to advocate new enterprises and reward inventions. Establish the General Administration of Railways and Mines, and build railways to mine minerals; Abolish stereotyped writing, try new strategies, start schools and advocate western learning; Reduce redundant staff, reduce the old army, and retrain the navy and army. In September of 2 1 year, Empress Dowager Cixi staged a coup, imprisoned Emperor Guangxu and arrested reformists. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao fled abroad, and Tan Sitong, Kang Ren Guang, Xu Lin, Liu Guangdi, Yang Rui and Yang Shenxiu were killed. The New Deal was completely cancelled, and the "Hundred Days Reform" failed.
Hundred Days Reform (1898)
[Edit this paragraph] Detailed introduction
From April 23rd, 24th year of Guangxu reign in Qing Dynasty (June 1898 1 1), Emperor Guangxu decided to reform the political system, until Empress Dowager Cixi "lectured on politics" again in early August of the same year, which lasted for ** 103 days.
On April 23rd, Emperor Guangxu resolutely promulgated Guo Zhao and decided to reform. From then on, the sensational "Hundred Days Reform" in China's modern history began. On the 28th, Emperor Guangxu summoned Kang Youwei, then the minister of the Ministry of Industry, in Renshou Hall of the Summer Palace. This is the first time they have met. Kang took the opportunity of this interview to reiterate his proposition of comprehensive political reform. First of all, it is stated that the national crisis in China has reached the severity of success or death, and it is impossible to strengthen itself unless the old laws are changed. Guangxu agreed and said: Today's sincerity must be reformed. Kang also pointed out that in recent years, there has been no silence on the reform of the law, but only a few changes have been made, and the changes have not been thorough. If one of them does not change, the result will be in vain. It is believed that if we want to reform the law, we must first revise the law, otherwise it will only change things and will not reform the law. We asked Emperor Guangxu to "start the system first and reform the law". He also said that he had studied the political reforms in various countries. Western countries emphasize 300 years of rule, while Japan gained strength in the 30 years after the Meiji Restoration. He believes that as long as serious political reforms are carried out, China can stand on its own feet within three years. Emperor Guangxu thought his speech was well organized. Kang asked again, "Since the emperor knew that political reform was necessary, why didn't he do it earlier and sit back and watch the country in danger?" Outside the curtain, Guangxu sighed, "Why not?" Kang understood that Emperor Guangxu was worried about the obstruction of Empress Dowager Cixi, so he proposed that "as far as the emperor is concerned, it can't change everything, but it is enough to save China." It is pointed out that the ministers of the current dynasty were conservative and ignorant of the general trend of the world. The emperor can't rely on conservative ministers to reform. He can only hire talented junior ministers, give them official positions and allow them to receive education. If they have real talents and practical knowledge, they can be reused in unconventional ways and let them deal with the New Deal. As for conservative ministers, they can keep their original salaries, so that they have no fear of losing their jobs and they will not obstruct the New Deal. This is a compromise political reform strategy designed by Kang Youwei for Emperor Guangxu in the case of disparity between the old and the new forces. Kang also suggested that in the future, if the emperor is required to send more letters to "show his mind", although the minister is conservative, he "has no way to refute." In order to select and train talents, Kang also advocated abolishing stereotyped writing system, attaching importance to western language translation, and sending people abroad to study and travel. And answered the question of how to raise funds to solve the financial difficulties. Emperor Guangxu agreed with Kang's words and finally said, "You still have something to say, you can make a statement." Kang Youwei is very excited. In this unusual hundred days, he and other reformists, worried about the country and the people, worked hard to strengthen themselves, presented the New Deal many times, and frequently presented books on political reform, and put forward many valuable suggestions for political reform. Emperor Guangxu also issued 180 New Deal imperial edicts, making this short hundred days a moment of "vigorous imperial edicts and inspiring people". The main contents are:
First, select talents for reform. This is the strongest appeal of the reformists, the most sensitive and taboo of the die-hards, and the problem that Emperor Guangxu wanted to do and was most worried about. At the beginning of the Hundred-Day Reform, Emperor Guangxu ordered the court ministers to appoint talents, and asked provincial governors to sponsor outstanding talents with good conduct and current affairs to participate in the New Deal reform in the court. On April 25th, Kang Youwei, Huang Zunxian, Tan Sitong, Zhang Yuanji and Liang Qichao sponsored bachelor Xu Zhijing. Since then, Hunan Governor Chen Baozhen and Zhan Hall official Wang Xifan sponsored Yang Rui, Liu Guangdi, Yan Fu and others respectively, which were adopted by Emperor Guangxu. Guangxu originally intended to reuse Kang Youwei, but due to stubborn ministers such as Rong Lu and fortitude, he was only given a six-grade junior official who walked in the Prime Minister's yamen, Zhang Jing. Liang Qichao was also summoned and entrusted to handle the affairs of the translation and publishing company of six topics in the University Hall. According to the example of the Qing dynasty, only senior officials with more than four grades can be summoned by the emperor. Also called kang as the main thing, called Liang as a cloth. Therefore, Liang Qichao called it "a pioneering work that has not been done in forty years since Xianfeng", which shows the sincerity of Emperor Guangxu in promoting reform talents. However, according to the practice of the Qing Dynasty, once a juren is summoned, it will be given to Hanlin, which is at least a cabinet book. It can be seen that Kang Heliang's treatment is not promoted by deformity, but suppressed by deformity. This reflects the harsh reality that the reformists are weak and Emperor Guangxu has no right. According to Kang Youwei's plan, the most fundamental way to appoint a large number of reformers was to set up a system bureau, but it was not realized under the resolute resistance of the die-hards. Therefore, during the 100-day reform, only a few reformers can be promoted bit by bit. In the Prime Minister's yamen, the actual executive body of the New Deal, only imperial envoys Zhang He and others tend to reform, and Kang Youwei is the only newly-added reformer. In Douchayuan, which was responsible for delivering letters to scholars, only the original advisers Yang Shenxiu and Song Bolu tended to reform, and no reformists were promoted. Among the six departments, the only thing that failed was a serious conflict, and all the officials in the six departments did not change. They agreed with Li Duan, the former assistant minister of the reform warehouse? As for ministers, Zhan Xifan, the second son of the former dynasty, Guo, a bachelor of cabinet, and Zhijing, a bachelor of cabinet, were left and right assistant ministers respectively, but the backbone of the later party was still a minister, located in Li Duan? Previously, the left assistant minister and the right assistant minister were also matched with the conservative figures Shou Qi and Sa Lian respectively. This is already the biggest victory of the Reform Party in personnel. The most noteworthy thing about Guangxu's appointment of the reformists was the selection of the so-called "four generals of military aircraft" by the Ministry of Military Affairs ―― on July 20th, it was announced that The Cabinetshi Read Yang Rui, Liu Guangdi, alternate director of punishments, Xu Lin, alternate secretary of cabinet, and Tan Sitong, alternate magistrate of Jiangsu, "all received four letters, took military aircraft and participated in administrative affairs". Although the official position is not high, the position is very important. Specifically responsible for drafting the New Deal imperial edicts, reading and approving the memorials of ministers, and assisting Emperor Guangxu in handling the New Deal affairs. In fact, he joined the cardinal and secretly seized the power of the minister of military affairs. He was regarded as the "prime minister" at that time, and it was the most important position occupied by the Uighurs in the Reform Movement of 1898. It's a pity that the replacement of officials of the Ministry of Rites and the appointment of the Secretary for Military Affairs were only half a month before the coup in 1898, which actually didn't play much role.
Second, cultural and educational reform. It also includes two aspects: 1. Abolish stereotyped writing system. Before the Reform Movement of 1898, Kang Youwei and other reformists criticized the serious harm of stereotyped writing system many times. When Kang Youwei was summoned on April 28, he demanded the abolition of stereotyped writing in the face of the harm of Emperor Guangxu's stereotyped writing, which was approved by Emperor Guangxu. The next day, Kang ordered the imperial adviser Song Bolu to play "Please change stereotyped writing into a policy" which he had already drafted, and asked imperial examinations at all levels to abolish stereotyped writing and try to change the policy. Emperor Guangxu accepted this suggestion. In order to avoid the obstruction of the die-hards, this matter is not discussed below. After obtaining the consent of Cixi, an imperial edict was issued on the fifth day of May, announcing that, from the next subject, both the township entrance examination and the birth age examination would be tried. "Anyone who uses four books (that is, eight-part essays) will try the strategy theory." May 12, June 1 day, July 3, repeated applications, so that the provincial children's age examination was changed into a strategy, without waiting for the next session. It also made specific provisions on the number and content of examinations, and announced the abolition of the examination system in South Korea. At this point, the reformists' efforts to get rid of stereotyped writing and take scholars have achieved great results, and even "celebrate with wine, thinking that the disadvantages of ignorant people for thousands of years are the first major event of reform." However, this reform did not fundamentally abolish the imperial examination system, but only reformed the contents and methods of the examination. In the past, eight-part essay was used to select scholars, and the contents of the examination were all "four books" and "five classics" After the "Planning Theory" was changed, the "Four Books" and "Five Classics" remained, which only increased the knowledge of China history and western natural science, politics and law. At this point, there is no principle difference between reformists and westernization bureaucrats. This is not only a concession that the reformists have to make in consideration of the way out for millions of stereotyped writers; It also reflects that they themselves have not completely got rid of the shackles of the old classics. 2. Establish schools and advocate western learning. After the abolition of the imperial edict of stereotyped writing, Kang Youwei and other reformists repeatedly advocated the establishment of modern schools throughout the country, changing old academies into new ones, and combining western learning with middle schools, which was supported by Emperor Guangxu. On April 23, it was issued that "the country is the imperial edict", that is, it was clearly put forward that Shi Jing University Hall should be established first, so as to "be advocated by all provinces". On May 15, Chongqing approved the articles of association of Shi Jing University Hall proposed by the Prime Minister's yamen and appointed Sun Jianai to handle the affairs of Shi Jing University Hall. Shi Jing University Hall (the predecessor of Peking University) was officially opened. On the 22nd, it was ordered that all the academies and private schools in the provincial capitals, ministries, states and counties should be "changed into schools where middle schools also learn Western learning". The provincial capital has become an institution of higher learning, the county seat has become a middle school and the county seat has become a primary school. Later, orders were issued one after another to make the provinces organize specialized schools such as mining, navy, farming, compilation, medicine and tea affairs; Set up a book translation agency, translate foreign new books, and advocate traveling abroad and studying abroad. However, provincial governors turned a blind eye to Guangxu's imperial edict, delaying it again and again. As a result, only Shi Jing University Hall was formally established, which became the only remaining fruit of the Reform Movement of 1898. Other places were hindered by all kinds of obstacles and little action was taken.
Third, economic reform. Kang Youwei and other reformists' leading thought on economic reform is to comprehensively transform agriculture, industry and commerce according to the model of western capitalist countries, so as to make China embark on the road of capitalist development. In terms of industry, it emphasizes rewarding inventions and allows private financing to set up factories. In the aspect of commerce, it criticizes the feudal ruling class's thought of "emphasizing the capital and restraining the end", expounds the truth that "if commerce can flourish, the country will be rich and strong", and suggests setting up a Ministry of Commerce in China and commercial bureaus in all provinces. In agriculture, it emphasizes that agriculture is fundamental and advocates the rule of law in the west. Emperor Guangxu accepted Kang Youwei's proposition and issued Chongqing Order for economic reform many times, including the following contents: 1. Protect and reward agriculture, industry and commerce, set up the general administration of agriculture, industry and commerce and the general administration of railways and mines in Beijing, promote industry, encourage private investment, build railways and mine minerals; Ordered the provinces to set up business bureaus (or branches of agriculture, industry and commerce). 2. Ordering local officials in all provinces to adopt the laws of China and the West to effectively revitalize agriculture. 3. Reward scientific works and inventions, and promulgate Article 12 of the Regulations on Rewarding and Revitalizing Technologies, which stipulates that those who write new books, innovate laws and make new devices shall be granted official positions or patents. 4. Set up post sub-offices in the capital and various trading ports, and abolish post stations. 5. Prepare the national budget and final accounts, which will be published by the Ministry of Housing on a monthly basis. 6. Cancel the parasitic privileges of Manchu and allow them to make a living by themselves. Provincial governors, except Hunan Governor Chen Baozhen, seriously dealt with the New Deal, all turned a deaf ear and tried every means to shirk. For example, provinces have been delaying the establishment of business bureaus. Emperor Guangxu was extremely angry. He severely condemned Liu Kunyi, governor of Liangjiang and Tan, governor of Guangdong and Guangxi (1822- 1905). But before the coup, economic reform had little effect.
Fourth, political reform. Includes two aspects: 1. Official system reform. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Kang Youwei's main proposition for the reform was to set up a system bureau as a deliberative body to renegotiate all political systems; And set up 12 bureau in the central government as the executive body to implement the new deal. Although this idea was supported by Emperor Guangxu, it was desperately opposed by die-hard ministers and failed to come true. Another important proposition of Kang Youwei's reform of the official system is to distinguish between "official" and "poor", that is, to hold a senior official position, and to do practical work, it is necessary to appoint knowledgeable people, that is, "to improve the old with a high rank so that Ren Xian can"; He advocates a cautious attitude towards the reform of the official system and redundant staff. However, Emperor Guangxu, who had been suppressed by the die-hards of the post-party for a long time, wanted to punish the post-party ministers during the political reform. Therefore, he did not completely listen to Kang Youwei's suggestion, but adopted the suggestion of Cen Chunxuan (1861-kloc-0/933), laid off redundant staff, and issued an imperial edict on July 14, ordering the cancellation of Zhan Shifu, the General Political Department and the General Political Department. Other provinces abolished the governors of Hubei, Guangdong and Yunnan provinces (the governors of these three provinces and the governor of Donghe), and did not handle the commissary road for transportation business, but only managed the salt road for sparse sales. Officials who are the same in all provinces and have no local responsibility have been laid off. These redundant workers should have been laid off, but due to the failure to make proper arrangements for the way out of a large number of laid-off officials in advance, the contradictions intensified unprecedentedly, and conservatives hated the reformists even more, "eating healthy meat" accelerated the arrival of the coup. This is one of the manifestations of reformists' impatience and lack of strategy. 2. Open your mind and encourage writing. According to the regulations of the Qing dynasty, not only ordinary people, but also Beijing officials below level 4 and local officials below level 3 were not qualified to remember the memorial. Imperial edicts were issued on June 15, July 17 and July 28, announcing that ministers, workers and ordinary people have the right to write letters to talk about things, and officials of various ministries write letters and officials of various departments play things; The scholar wrote a letter, which was presented by Duchayuan. Letters from local scholars were broadcast by the provincial government with the times. Moreover, it is stipulated that "no pressure is allowed" and "if there is obstruction, the offender will be punished by law". At the same time, decrees were issued to encourage local newspapers to run, and the Shanghai Times was changed to an official newspaper. In addition, militarily, it also ordered the reduction of the old army, training troops in the west and establishing a navy; Practice armor protection, practice group training and so on.
In short, due to the promotion of the reformists and the advocacy of Emperor Guangxu, the people of China realized a certain degree of freedom of speech, publication, assembly and association in a short period of 100 days; The national capitalist industry was legally recognized for the first time; The bourgeois ideology and culture have been widely spread, and the feudal old school has been hit hard. Therefore, the Reform Movement of 1898 is of progressive significance in the history of China. Kang Youwei once praised the Hundred Days Reform with excitement, which "swept away the disadvantages accumulated in two thousand years", "conformed to the hearts of 40 million people" and "changed politics in one hundred days, and showed the Soviet Union in all directions, which made the whole country feel shocked by the thoroughly remoulded changes". Although Kang's statement is not without exaggeration, it shows that the Reform Movement of 1898 really reflected the interests of the emerging bourgeoisie. Therefore, it caused the desperate resistance of the feudal die-hards. Empress Dowager Cixi staged a coup with the support of the post-party die-hards. On the sixth day of August, he re-announced his political training, imprisoned Emperor Guangxu, restored the old system, and killed the reformists. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao fled, and Tan Sitong, Yang Rui, Liu Guangdi, Xu Lin, Yang Shenxiu and Kang Renguang were killed. They were called "six gentlemen of the 1898 Movement" in history, and the 1898 Reform failed.
As we all know, before the Reform Movement of 1898, the highest political ideals of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao were to establish a national assembly, set up a national assembly and implement a constitutional monarchy; However, the biggest defect of the Reform Movement of 1898 was that there was no concept of constitutional monarchy, which was mostly attributed to Emperor Guangxu's unwillingness to limit his power. In fact, this is only one aspect of the problem, and it is a secondary aspect. The most important thing is the change of Kang Youwei's political reform thought and strategy: from advocating civil rights reform to imperial reform.
1888 12 10, Kang Youwei took the opportunity to take part in the provincial examination in Shuntian, and wrote to Guangxu for the first time, proposing that "to become a Buddha, be sensible and be cautious". This letter was given to Weng Tonghe by imperial academy. He asked for it and was rejected. Kang Youwei is very depressed. "Tiger and leopard are fierce and keep nine."
1On May 6, 895, following the "bus letter" that shocked China and foreign countries, Kang Youwei wrote twice in a row, proposing that "the government should communicate with the people". The third petition finally reached Guangxu, causing concern, and the reformists began to get the support of Emperor Guangxu. Liang Qichao also shouted in his General Introduction to Reform that "increasing respect for monarchical power and declining civil rights are the fundamental reasons for China's weakness" and called for "expanding civil rights" and "establishing parliament" to implement constitutional monarchy.
With the gradual development of the practice of political reform, Kang Youwei's understanding has gradually become realistic. "Political reform seems simple, but in fact it is too difficult to succeed." Recognizing the strength of the die-hard forces and the weakness of the reformists, it is very difficult to directly establish a national assembly and a parliament by copying Britain and the United States. It is more practical to rely on the authority of the emperor and "act arbitrarily" to "become a law" and achieve prosperity.
In his fourth book, Kang Youwei has obviously changed his political strategy: "The people at the meeting still occupy the upper position, but they are smart and brainstorm, and they lose their feelings a little for a raise." The right of employing people is not a right, but to promote morality. Why did you lose your motivation? " To eliminate Guangxu's concerns.
1898 1 month, Kang Youwei wrote a letter to Guangxu, which is the sixth time, that is, the book should write the overall situation, and put forward: ① clarify the country, ② "establish the system bureau as the central institution to guide the national reform." It is worth noting that the system was established under the auspices of the emperor and had imperial power. Since then, Kang Youwei presented books such as The Change of Peter in Russia, The Change of Japan and The Death of Poland to Guangxu for reference. This is Kang Youwei's comprehensive adjustment from civil rights reform to imperial reform.
1March 898 12, Kang Youwei wrote to Guangxu for the seventh time, clearly stating that it is best to take Peter as an example and Russia as a model for reform. "The earth is rich and beautiful, and the democratic system is different from China, as powerful as Britain and Germany, and the * * * system is not much different from China, but the Russian monarchy.
In this case, it is logical for the National Assembly not to mention the establishment of parliament, and it is unwise to talk about "constitutional monarchy" again. In short, the author thinks that the fundamental reason why the Hundred Days Reform did not mention the establishment of the National Assembly, the establishment of the House of Representatives and the implementation of the constitutional monarchy was that the weakness of the bourgeois reformists pinned their hopes on Emperor Guangxu, thus changing the original intention of the "civil rights reform" and embarking on the road of "imperial reform", hoping not only to weaken the imperial system, but also to strengthen it.
Objective reasons: Emperor Guangxu himself was a puppet emperor with no real power. The direct purpose of his support for political reform is to seize real power. How could he revive civil rights and weaken monarchical power? Secondly, the reform itself is a huge, complex and long-term systematic project. Kang Youwei strongly recommended the reform of Peter I, and there was no parliament at all. Meiji Restoration first seized power from the shogunate, established the authority of the emperor, carried out reforms under the auspices of the emperor, and gradually established the parliamentary structure and status in the reform (1889 Constitution of the Great Japanese Empire, the cabinet was responsible to the emperor, not to the parliament). Britain implemented constitutional monarchy, which lasted for half a century from the revolution of 1640 to the promulgation of the Bill of Rights of 1689 and the establishment of constitutional monarchy. China, a feudal empire with a tradition of autocratic monarchy for 2,000 years, could not implement constitutional monarchy. This also shows that Kang Heliang is "wise" on this key issue. If the basic political and economic system has not changed, there is obviously a lack of appropriate organization, ideological preparation and social and material conditions. In short, the "Reform Movement of 1898" was too short and died, and the constitutional monarchy was stillborn before it could be conceived.