In the spring and summer of the 22nd year of Qianlong (1757), Amur Sana, the leader of Zhungeer Muslim Special Department who defected and defected, fled to Kazakhstan under the pursuit of the Qing army, and the Qing army went deep into Kazakhstan to arrest them one by one. The Kazakh soldiers were defeated, and Abilayhan and his brother Abulebis sent a special envoy to the barracks to "say hello and confess". Abilayhan Khan (right) of Kazakhstan is willing to surrender to the whole of Kazakhstan and be a servant of the great emperor forever. He has been entrusted with an important task. Hearing this, Gan Long was overjoyed and thought that Junggar's overall performance was in sight, so he announced to China: "Kazakhstan is also a big bay, and has never been to China since ancient times. In the past, the strength of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty was extremely poor, and he was only rewarded by his horse. According to historical records, this is Xuanwei's unique territory. Today, I am leading all my people to fall in love with my family. This is the blessing of God and the great wish of our ancestors, which has made my country a unified country in the Qing Dynasty beyond human power. " (Note: See Record of Emperor Gaozong of Qing Dynasty, Volume 543, July 3rd, 22nd year of Qianlong; The strategy of pacifying Junggar is being compiled into volume 4 1. For Kazakhstan, which fought against the defeat of the Qing army, it was easy to bring it into the territory of China with the help of all the strength of the country, not to mention that Abilayhan Khan was "willing to surrender to Kazakhstan and be a slave of the emperor forever"; However, Gan Long believes that Kazakhs have different backgrounds from Khalkha and Elut, so it is not necessary and should not be included in Chinese territory, but should be treated as foreign vassals. His thoughts clearly expressed Farming Yu Ming in the above table:
Thousands of miles away, Kazakhstan is desolate. Today, it has never sent a special envoy to attract people. It's a vassal who gives books and horses and does whatever he wants. It is said to be from Sri Lanka. But it only enslaves its subordinate countries, such as Annan, Ryukyu and Siam, so that it can teach students in the sky. It's not a county, it's an official, and it's not like the flag-making in Khartoum. That is to say, when Junggar just returned to China, it just wanted to be divided into four Willats, which was reasonable for itself, and Kazakhstan was also close to Xiqiao from non-Junggar. (Note: See Record of Emperor Gaozong of Qing Dynasty, Volume 543, July 3rd, 22nd year of Qianlong; The strategy of pacifying Junggar is being compiled into volume 4 1. )
Ganlong's policy toward Kazakhstan is well thought out and consistent. Two years ago, when Northwest Second Road set out for Junggar, it determined the general direction of the policy: "After the project is completed, if Kazakhs and others come to surrender, the leaders of the University of Iraq will go to Beijing for pilgrimage and reward their ranks, and their subordinates will still be placed in the original nomadic people, so there is no need to move; If you don't return your sincerity, you don't have to attack it with soldiers. " (Note: The Record of Emperor Gaozong in Qing Dynasty (Volume 483) was recorded in February of the 20th year of Qianlong. In short, yield to it, otherwise, listen to it. When the Qing army went deep into Kazakhstan and won a decisive victory over the Kazakh army, the situation was much smoother than expected. However, Qianlong did not develop the idea of annexing Kazakhstan for foreign conquest and expansion, and still followed the original policy thinking. In comparison with Annan, Ryukyu and Siam, he treated Kazakhstan as a vassal state, but only enslaved it and taught it to the world. Subsequently, according to the right Kazakh, "it is not easy to enjoy the peace, not to confer official titles, and not to blame the tribute" (Note: "Records of the Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty", volume 555, March of the twenty-third year of Qianlong. For example, it successively belonged to Kazak, East and West bulut, Badakhshan, Aiwuhan and other places on the left side of the Qing Dynasty, and also became a "foreign vassal state" of the Qing Dynasty (Note: The Record of Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty (Volume 722) was applicable to November of the 29th year of Qianlong. )。 In the 28th year of Qianlong (1763), Qianlong wrote that he loved Wu Khan, Hammert and Sahan, and said, "I am the master of the world, and China and foreign countries look at each other" (Note: A Record of the Qing Emperor (678), and the first month of the 28th year of Qianlong has passed. ), "China" here refers to the unification of China, and "foreign" refers to all foreign countries including vassal states, that is, the second space of "the world" in the eyes of the Qing emperor as the "master of the world". Prior to this, after Yongzheng told Babu Sanhan outside Tibet that "I am the master of the world without discrimination" (Note: Records of the Qing Dynasty 122, Yongzheng), Jiaqing said that "China is the master of the world" in response to the failure of the British envoy China's ceremony (Note: Records of the Qing Dynasty, Volume 320, Jiaqing July 21st. ), are the same concept. Most countries in the second space are neighboring countries of China, and some are overseas countries. The emperors of the Qing Dynasty often referred to those who came to China as "people far away" (Note: Records of Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty, Volume 1435, completed in August of the 58th year of Qianlong. )。 If we say that the first space gradually changed from "the world" to a part of China with the gradual unification, then the emperors of the Qing Dynasty agreed that the second space was a foreign country. This involves the final boundary of the Chinese border in the eyes of the Qing emperor, so let's analyze it a little.
Hui Dian, written in the middle of Kangxi, described the situation around China under the general rules of tribute at that time: "The country is unified, surpassing the ages, and there are countless princes in the east, west, north and south." According to "Fan Fu", it includes the forty-nine banners of Monan Mongolia, the Mongolian tribes (Lama, Gurkha, Elut) who paid tribute at the age of 18, and the toast of the Ministry of War, which was also included in the Ministry of Rites. (Note: See Kangxi's Qing Hui Dian (Volume 72), Does the Guest Lawsuit; Volume seventy-four "Don't give"; Volume eighty-five, Ministry of War five; Volume 142 Li Fan Yuan I; Volume 144 Relevant records of Li Fan Sanyuan Meat Hospital Qing Guan Department. It seems that the word "uniform" is broad and vague. In fact, after careful investigation, the hierarchy is still very clear: the innermost layer is the forty-nine flags transferred into the territory, the outermost layer is the Lama, Elut and Gurkha, which are called "country", "Ministry" and "respective places", and the outermost layer is the tribute "foreign" (of course, "foreign" is different from "foreign", Gurkha and Elut, etc. Although they are far from the Qing court, they all belong to the "Mongolian tribe" and "set up a special defense court to unify", while the "foreign affairs" such as North Korea are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Rites, which is enough to prove that the Qing emperor did not pay attention to Gurkha and Erut. , not included in the territory, as "foreign". In short, the Chinese and foreign borders in the eyes of the emperors in the early Qing Dynasty were clearly divided. During the Qianlong period, Halka, Mongolia, Tibet, Errut and Huibu in Qinghai were successively incorporated into the national territory, and achieved equal status with inland counties such as Monan Mongolia. With the determination of the territory and the effective jurisdiction of the state over the border areas, the connotation and extension of the concept of China were finally determined. The statement about foreign countries in the Qianlong Hui Dian records "Korea, Ryukyu, Sulu, Annan, Siam, Western Regions, Myanmar and Nanzhang" as "the countries where four families pay tribute" under the chapter of "courtesy, guest, official and tribute". "Northwest Fan Yi" was also a "foreign vassal state" during the reign of Qianlong (note: Qing Hui Dian (Volume 56), "Rites, Guests, Officials and Tributes"). ) "The tribes in the left and right of Kazakhstan, bulut in the east and west, Andijan, Margarang, Huohan, Namugan, Tashan, Badakhshan, Burruhr, Aiwuhan, Kichiyus and Urgenqi" are attached to the newly revised Fan Liyuan to come to Lisi in Yuan Qing because of their geographical relationship, and the written expression is quite difficult to consider. With the extension of the word China, the connotation of the concept of "vassal government" gradually narrowed, leaving only the surrounding or overseas "tributary countries"; The use of "Chinese and foreign" has also changed from the symmetry of "Chinese and foreign" under the framework of Greater China, that is, "Chinese" and "four foreign", to the symmetry of unifying China and foreign countries; The title of "Siyi" has always been retained, specially worn on the heads of all foreign countries; As the saying goes, "the Qing emperors had the means to defend the security of China" and pushed it beyond the border between China and foreign countries, regarding neighboring countries as "vassals".
It is against this background that the question of how to determine the boundary between China and foreign countries arises. It was first related to "not reaching China since ancient times" (Note: Records of the Holy Father of Qing Dynasty 160, Ding You in October of the thirty-second year of Kangxi. ) and Russia, which began to enter Russian territory due to its rapid eastward expansion, demarcated the eastern border between China and China. During the Qianlong period, with the completion of the great cause of pacification, Kazakhstan and other Central Asian countries, which were originally adjacent to Junggar, became vassals of China. What are the principles of border demarcation between these countries and China? Please look at the relevant letters of Qianlong. In the twenty-second year of Qianlong (1757), he warned Kazakh Abilayhan Khan: "When you know that Junggar knows our territory like the back of your hand, you should keep your territory and leave it alone; It is still feasible for Erut and others who occasionally lead nomadic people into our territory to be the first to hate and accept them as human beings. " (Note: See Record of Emperor Gaozong of Qing Dynasty, Volume 543, July 3rd, 22nd year of Qianlong; The strategy of pacifying Junggar is being compiled into volume 4 1. In the autumn of the twenty-fifth year of Qianlong (1760), Abilayhan Khan was told, "Don't invade Liang Hai, that is, if the old land is occupied by Junggar when it borders Junggar, it should not be nomadic across the border." (Note: Volume VI of the sequel to the Strategy of Pacifying Junggar. )。 In the early winter of the 23rd year of Qianlong (1758), Brute, who was on a pilgrimage, begged for the award of temur Tunol to Brute. Qianlong said, "Although this place is an ancient nomadic place, it has been occupied by Junggar for a long time, can it be regarded as two lands? However, since you are servants, this place is quite relaxed, or it is a nomadic place nearby. It is still feasible to make a living for it as appropriate. " (Note: The Record of Emperor Gaozong in Qing Dynasty (Volume 572) was written by Ding Si in October of the 23rd year of Qianlong. It can be seen that the Chinese border that Qianlong confirmed and earnestly practiced is not infinite. In the past, the border between Junggar and neighboring Central Asian countries was the final border of China. On the other hand, it also requires the other country to restrain the people and not to invade the territory of China. Qianlong's position on China's border is firm, principled and reasonable.
Why is Junggar's hometown the last border of China territory? Because the Qing emperor never regarded the "country" established by the surrounding ethnic minorities such as Junggar as a foreign country, and the surrounding ethnic minorities such as Junggar were never outside China. The proposition of "distinguishing between Chinese and foreigners" in ancient China did discriminate against "four foreigners", but as Li Daliang said in the Tang Dynasty, "China people are the roots of the world; There are still many branches and leaves in the four barbarians "(Note: Twenty-four History of the Old Tang Dynasty, Volume 62, Biography 12, Biography of Li Daliang". ), people of insight in ancient times always thought that "four meanings" and "China" had the same root and formed a big tree. The principle that Qianlong confirmed the territory of China not only inherited and carried forward the family law of his ancestors, but also had the profound ancient tradition of introversion of China's history and culture. In fact, China has been a multi-ethnic country since ancient times, which is consistent with history. The cause of national reunification promoted by the Qing emperor was nothing more than reorganizing the old country and bringing the land and people that should have belonged to China into the territory of China; Once reunification is achieved, once the troops cross the border to foreign countries under special circumstances and achieve the set goals, they will immediately take the initiative to withdraw their troops and return to China's self-restrained border, focusing on the consolidation of national territory and the cohesion of all ethnic groups. When China became strong, Kangxi earnestly warned his descendants: "Tribute from foreign vassals, though important, may spread to future generations, so don't make trouble. In a word, if China is peaceful, it won't be noisy outside. Therefore, it is crucial to cultivate vitality. " (Note: The Record of the Holy Father of Qing Dynasty (volume 160) was written by Ding You in October of the thirty-second year of Kangxi. How well this passage is said! It is not only enough to clear up the fallacies of various statements accusing the Qing Dynasty of foreign aggression and expansion, but also a warning to future generations.
"The world is unified, and the Huayi family"
During the founding of the Qing Dynasty, apart from the main battlefield of the military contest with the Ming Dynasty, the prelude to the ideological confrontation between "the debate between China and foreign countries" and "the rule of China by foreigners" was actually opened. In the Ming Dynasty, especially after the San Francisco Uprising was put down, Wang Gui was captured and killed in Kunming. The Qing Dynasty established the rule of Chinese mainland, where the Han people lived in compact communities, by force. However, how to overcome the idea of Han chauvinism discriminating against ethnic minorities in thought and theory and establish the legitimacy of "alien land" to rule China became a severe challenge for the Qing emperors. Yongzheng and Qianlong, while successfully promoting the great cause of national reunification, lost no time in debating the proposition of "distinguishing between Chinese and foreigners" and the orthodoxy of Confucianism.
After Kangxi came to power, for a long time, he adopted a lenient policy towards the "adherents of the country" who did not cooperate with the new dynasty, which eased the tense ethnic contradictions between Manchu and Han. Unexpectedly, in the sixth year of Yongzheng (1728), Ceng Jing instigated Yue Zhongqi's anti-Qing case. This sudden case proves that military conquest can only intensify the common enemy of the Han people, and the Huairou policy cannot eliminate the deep-rooted hostility of the Han people. Yongzheng did not follow the routine of imperial rule, but decided to use Ceng Jing's anti-Qing case to openly confront the proposition of "Discrimination between Chinese and foreigners".
Yongzheng's basic argument and argumentation logic are: it is undeniable that Manchuria is a barbarian, but "barbarian" is only a regional concept (Yongzheng used the word "square domain"), and Mencius said that "Shun is also a barbarian; King Wen, the man who lives in the west is also "(Note: Records of Sejong in the Qing Dynasty 130, established in April of the 11th year of Yongzheng. ) can be used as evidence, so "Man and Han are all famous for their colors, and each province in Judah has its own place of origin, which is not different from China and foreign countries" (Note: The Record of Qing Sejong (volume 130) was completed in April of the 11th year of Yongzheng. ), Lv Liuliang and Zeng Jingren were born in this kind of border privacy. What are the reasons? (Note: The Record of Sejong in Qing Dynasty (Volume 86) has been forgotten in September of the seventh year of Yongzheng. ) There is no need to oppose "the argument between China people and foreigners" in general. Han Yu has a saying that "China and Yi Di also, then Yi Di also; Yi Di and China are also China's "(Note:" Records of Sejong in Qing Dynasty "Volume 86, September of Yongzheng seven years. ), which proves that the difference between China people and foreigners lies in whether they are "oriented" (Note: Yongzheng said in "The Mystery of the Great Righteousness": "Since ancient times, when China was unified, its territory could not be wide, and some of them were not oriented, so it was relegated to barbarians." ), that is, whether to recognize and accept the "Chinese and foreign" cultural traditions. (Note: It should be said that this does not violate the original meaning of the pre-Confucianism, in which the division between China and Yidi is not national, but cultural orientation, that is, as far as Mencius is concerned, although he thinks that Shun in the East is different from that in the West, the way it is implemented in China is in line with Ruojie, that is, the sage is first and then the saint ("Mencius Li Lou"). On the other hand, although Yang Zhu and both are from China, "Yang is nothing to me. Mohist school loves without father; Without a father and a gentleman, it is an animal "(Mencius Teng Wengong). Yongzheng went on to say righteously: "I worship the coast of the East China Sea, unify all countries, claim the title of king in the world, inherit the system and be self-indulgent, used by the people, people from all walks of life, people from all walks of life at home and abroad, the policy of rites and music, and the domestic economics at home and abroad" (Note: Records of the Qing Emperor Sejong, volume 130, the eleventh year of Yongzheng). "Today's anti-thief (Lv Liuliang) is equal to the unification of the world, and it was also the judgment of the Huayi family on China and foreign countries at that time. Isn't it a different kind of rebellion, no father, no gentleman, bee ant? " (Note: The Record of Sejong in Qing Dynasty (Volume 86) has been forgotten in September of the seventh year of Yongzheng. Yongzheng was so angry that he wanted to completely subvert the "debate between China and foreign countries" and had to.
The discrimination against the surrounding ethnic minorities in China in the Mainland, Foreign Countries in Summer, and Foreign Countries in Summer was exerted by Confucian scholars in past dynasties, which had a far-reaching impact on China's ancient concept of nation and state. The so-called "since ancient times, the monarch has been wise, China has won the trust, and Emperor Yi has ruled by power. Therefore, "Spring and Autumn Annals" said:' The wolf of Rong Di is not to be hated; Relatives in summer should not be abandoned. (Noe: Twenty-four History of Old Tang Dynasty, Volume 62, Biography 12, Biography of Li Daliang). ) advocates blackmail control of barbarians who do not take off the nature of jackals. Ignoring and trampling on barbarians without "orientation" and understanding Confucian ethics are the representative views of ancient Han literati and scholars on the superiority of the surrounding four barbarians. The change of dynasties between Ming and Qing Dynasties, in the view of adherents of Ming Dynasty, is "changing emperors and stealing heaven", and its seriousness is not limited to the change of a dynasty, but "Lu Chen in the Central Plains" and "the sun and the moon have no light", which plunged the whole society into a long night. The justice of resisting the national conquest and oppression of the Qing Dynasty was intertwined with the paranoia and absurdity of the debate between China and foreign countries, so Lv Liuliang secretly encouraged the Han people to rise up and overthrow the rule of the Qing Dynasty by propagating "the difference between Chinese and foreigners is higher than the meaning of monarch and minister". Yongzheng, in order to maintain the legitimacy of the Manchu emperor's rule of China, had to take advantage of the political advantages of autocratic rule to stand up and argue with the deep-rooted "debate between China and foreigners". But the debate in Yongzheng did not go to the other extreme. Through this debate, he sincerely expressed his recognition of the cultural tradition of the Han nationality "since Yao and Shun", which is helpful to solve the cultural gap with the Han nationality.
Yongzheng followed the trend of historical development, held high the banner of "the world is unified, and China and foreign countries are one", and opposed the proposition of "the debate between China and foreign countries" with the advantage of Confucianism, aiming at subverting the Han nationality's self-superior national view and striving for the equal status of foreigners and Chinese. Yongzheng was eloquent all his life, and perhaps this debate was the most rewarding.
Qianlong also had an argument about Huayi, which was nothing more than "Yi in the east and Rong in the west, and the land in the south was named after the land. What is the difference between Jiangnan Hebei and Shanzuoguan Right?" Meng Ziyun and Shun are both foreigners. There is nothing to be afraid of, and there is no need to be afraid of "(Note: Records of the Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty 1 168, Gengzi in the forty-seventh year of Qianlong. ) and so on are the logic and vocabulary that my father is familiar with, only for the Han people. "I have never heard of those people who rule the world by living in China with Yidi" (Note: 1367, Zhu Yuanzhang, the Ming Emperor, ordered the Northern Expedition. "I said to those who lived by the Qilu River in Jin:' Since ancient times, the emperor ruled the world, and China lived in the palace to control Yidi Yidi to live outside and work for China. I didn't either. "A Record of Ming Taizu" Volume 26, October of the first year of Wu Bingyin. Prejudice says that "the husband of the world, the world is also the world, not the income of the North and South, Chinese and foreign countries, but private" (Note: "A Record of the Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty" 1225, dry ugly fifty years in February. ), sharp words, this is the most obvious edge of the debate. As far as the theoretical framework of the concept of Greater China is concerned, Gan Long's contribution is not to refute foreigners in China, but to refute orthodoxy.
From the thirty-third year of Qianlong (1768), Qianlong began to pay attention to orthodoxy, destiny and popular support. In the 1950s, there were a large number of articles analyzing orthodoxy, the core of which was whether the Qing Dynasty was the leader of China, and the essence was whether Yidi was qualified to be the master of China. Ancient historians are most concerned about calligraphy. First of all, we should distinguish the ownership of orthodoxy. In the history of China, it is common for dynasties to reform and change orthodoxy, but only in the Yuan and Qing dynasties did Yi Di complete this process. The rulers of the Qing Dynasty belonged to Manchuria. Can they inherit the orthodoxy of the Ming Dynasty? With the meanings of "respecting Wang Ba" and "ruling through the ages", traditional historians have formed the following orthodox historical view: Zhou, Qin and Han come down in one continuous line, and the three countries do not try to seize the meaning of Han by Wei and Wu. After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the rulers of Song, Qi, Liang and Chen Jicheng were orthodox, and the Sui Dynasty unified China until the end of the Tang Dynasty. Zhu's "Flowers in the Mirror" holds that orthodoxy is one-sided. The trouble occurred in the Five Dynasties and the Song Dynasty, when Liao, Jin and Yuan rose in the north one after another. The nobles or courtiers of the Liang, Tang, Jin, Han, Zhou and Southern Song Dynasties called their sons grandnephews. Who is the orthodoxy of China? Yang Weizhen in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties wrote An Analysis of the Orthodoxy of the Song, Liao and Jin Dynasties, aiming at inheriting the Song Dynasty with the Yuan Dynasty and excluding the Liao and Jin Dynasties. The official of Siku Library speculated that the emperor meant to delete Yang Wei's "orthodox discrimination" contained in Tao's "Record of Dropping out of Farming". In their view, women are really the ancestors of Manchu, and it is more reasonable to inherit the orthodoxy of Liao, Jin and Yuan. Gan doesn't think so, and thinks that Yang Weizhen's theory is quite correct. The reason is that "Liao and Jin all originated in the north, and if they inherited Song and Yuan, they would be the masters of China". Although Liao, Jin and Yuan also originated in the north and belonged to the "Yidi" family, they failed to "elect the Central Plains" and Yuan was the "master of China". Qianlong thought that "those who advocate China are orthodox", so he took Yang Weizhen as the reason. Regarding the orthodoxy after the Song Dynasty, Qianlong's conclusion is that "after the Song Dynasty, it was partial to Lin 'an. At that time, Liao, Jin and Yuan started from the north, and Hebei was elected. Although the Song Dynasty called my nephew forbidden, the inheritor was still orthodox in the Northern Song Dynasty, and Liao and Jin were too busy. To, have words should be absolutely, my child should continue. " The Ming Dynasty inherited the orthodoxy of the Yuan Dynasty, while the Qing Dynasty was more unified and correct than the Yuan Dynasty. Gan Long refuted the views of the officials of Siku Library and emphasized the respect for the status of "China". He claimed to "adhere to China Theory". (Note: For the above, please refer to Record of Emperor Gaozong of Qing Dynasty (Volume 820), which is in the first month of the thirty-third year of Qianlong; Volume one thousand and thirty-four, Gan Long forty-two years at noon in June; Volume one thousand and forty-two, Qianlong forty-two years in October; Volume I, 142, Shen Jia in the forty-sixth year of Qianlong; Volume one thousand one hundred and forty-three, Qianlong forty-six years in October yiyou; Volume one thousand one hundred and sixty-eight, the Boxer Rebellion in November of Gan Long in forty-seven years; Volume one thousand two hundred and twenty-five, February fifty years. )
Orthodoxy first appeared when it opposed the word "partial security". In the history of China, when many countries merged, they paid special attention to the orthodox distinction. China was ruled by the Qing Dynasty for more than one hundred years, especially realizing the political ideal of unification. There is no doubt about the orthodox position of the Qing Dynasty. Why did Qianlong take the initiative to bring this matter up for discussion? On the surface, it refutes the theory that the official of Siku Library inherited the orthodoxy of Liao, Jin and Yuan. In fact, what he wants to expound is the viewpoint that "the master of China is orthodox". The word "China" was generally used as a synonym for "China" by emperors in the early and middle period of Qing Dynasty, but on second thought, the use of "China" instead of "China" seems to emphasize the meaning of the Han nationality country in the Central Plains. When comparing the orthodox status of the Yuan Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty, Qianlong said: "Although the Yuan Dynasty was unified, the talents who ruled China were 80 years old. At that time, the Han people were servants and their thoughts were not satisfied. Our country inherits the destiny and builds a vertical system. As for today, 140 years later, Han people are all slaves. Since his height, he has been detained for the fifth time, and his temperament is omniscient and his language is omniscient. " (Note: The Record of Emperor Gaozong in Qing Dynasty (Volume 1 154) was written in April of the forty-seventh year of Qianlong. As mentioned earlier, the reason why Qianlong disagreed with the orthodoxy of Liao and Jin Dynasties was that he did not "elect the Central Plains" (Note: A Record of Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty (Volume 1,210) was adopted in July of the forty-ninth year of Qianlong. )。 If Qianlong corrected and developed the orthodoxy of ancient history, it should be that he inherited Yongzheng's thought of "the world is unified, and China and foreign countries are one" and further put forward a new standard of whether the imperial dynasty is orthodox or not. The core of this new standard is whether its founding emperor is a barbarian or not. As long as he "elects the Central Plains", the owner of China is orthodox. Qianlong completed the construction of an orthodox theoretical system integrating traditional historians, thus establishing the legitimate position of the Qing Dynasty in the orthodox sequence of China.
The Qing emperor's view of China was clarified and finally established in the theoretical criticism of Han chauvinism's national view of "distinguishing between Chinese and foreigners". Subjectively, Yongzheng's distinction between Chinese and foreigners and Qianlong's orthodoxy lies in the struggle for the legitimacy of the Qing emperor who ruled China as a barbarian. Objectively speaking, the logical extension of emphasizing "the integration of Chinese and foreign countries" is bound to be that the ethnic minorities in Yi areas, which used to be regarded as animals, have completely equal status with the Han nationality. We must regard all ethnic groups and tribes with different languages, cultures, religions and customs living and reproducing within the territory of China as a big family, and we must regard China as both the Central Plains and the mainland. In the history of China, this kind of theoretical courage can only be divided into "China", "Yi Di", "My love is one" (Note: Zi Jian (198), (14) and May of the 21st year of Taizong Zhenguan: "Since ancient times, China has been the most important, and my love is one". Zhonghua Book Company 1989 Edition. ) Emperor Taizong can be opposite to each other and lead to homology; Interestingly, Yongzheng was a pure foreign emperor, and the blood of the foreign emperor (Xianbei) flowed in Taizong's veins. From Emperor Taizong to Yong Zhengdi, from opposing "Zhong Hua's contempt for foreigners" to "uniting China and foreign countries", the historical track of China's gradual integration with the Chinese nation is clearly discernible.
"The complete territory of the Manchu, Mongolian, Han and Tibetan nationalities is the Great Republic of China"
During the hundred years of san huang Kang's rule, he achieved national reunification militarily and politically, criticized the Confucian national prejudice of "Debate between China and Foreign Countries" ideologically, and won decisive victories on two fronts. The Qing emperor became the master of unifying China. Although the emperors of the Qing Dynasty seldom used "China" to express their new connotations, they still used condescending words such as "Qing Dynasty" and "China". With the increasing threat of western countries to all ethnic groups in the unified territory of China, the recognition of the Qing Dynasty emperors and their subjects of all ethnic groups to the unified country was rapidly strengthened, and the "Sino-foreign Debate" about the differences and opposites between the Han people in the mainland and the border ethnic minorities in the past was distinguished and divided between China and western countries. As a result of the interaction between the internal logic and external influence of China's history, the rulers of the Manchu Dynasty put forward the concepts of "Greater China" and "Greater China" with strict logic and clear connotation when the Qing Dynasty was about to fall.
In October of the fifty-fifth year of Kangxi (17 16), Kangxi decided to ban China merchant ships from trading in Nanyang. At the end of the decree, it reads: "Overseas countries, such as western countries, will be hated by China after thousands of years. This is what I expected. " (Note: Records of the Holy Father of Qing Dynasty (Volume 270) was abolished in October of the fifty-fifth year of Kangxi. )。 When the Chinese people just began to feel the prosperous times, Kangxi sounded a new alarm to his subjects: Western countries may become China's main rivals in the future. The west refers to the Atlantic European countries since the early Qing Dynasty. Kangxi had a good understanding of the west. He said that both China and western countries are within 40 degrees north of the equator. From the west to China, there are sea and land routes. It usually takes six months to sail in the ocean, 80 degrees south to Dalangshan and then north to Guangdong. The land is far away, and because it is separated from the Russian country, it is inconvenient to walk, so they all take the water. (Note: Records of the Holy Father of Qing Dynasty, volume 253, Jiayin, fifty-two years of Kangxi. At that time, the threat to the West that Kangxi felt mainly came from the Dutch colonial forces occupying Garabar (now Jakarta, Indonesia) in Nanyang. The emperor was worried that the coastal Han people might establish overseas anti-Qing bases under the protection of westerners, so he resolutely decided to ban Nanyang trade from the perspective of national strategic security.
Less than 80 years later, Kangxi's prediction of China's future revealed the initial vague outline. In the fifty-eighth year of Qianlong (1793), Britain, the most powerful country in the west, sent its envoy to China for the first time. The arrogance and stubbornness of magal, the British envoy, and the high technology embodied in the gift from the king of England gave Ganlong a strong shock. On August 26th of that year, Gan Long returned to Beijing from the summer resort and immediately went to Yuanmingyuan to visit the "tribute" of Madzar's mission. According to George Stanton, Deputy Special Envoy of the Mission, Emperor Qianlong was interested in the model of HMS Royal with 1 10 cannons. "He asked the mission personnel who helped install it at that time in detail about many parts on the warship and general questions about the British shipbuilding industry." (Note: According to Documentary Interview with Gan Long by British Ambassador, p. 406. This warship model is one of the gifts given by the king of England to Emperor Qianlong. According to Stenton, "the gift is accompanied by a fully equipped model of Britain's largest warship. Every minute of a huge warship equipped with 1 10 heavy artillery is completely displayed on the model "(page 250). Commercial press 1963 edition. The next day, Emperor Qianlong, the minister of war, sent a letter to Chang Lin, the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, saying, "Britain is more powerful in western countries. It is said that it plundered merchant ships from western countries on the ocean because foreigners in the nearby western regions were afraid of its arrogance." (Note: Record of Emperor Gaozong in Qing Dynasty (volume 1435), August 58, Qianlong. )。 On September 1 day, the Minister of Military Affairs was again ordered to send a telegram to the governors of coastal areas. Although foreigners in this country are familiar with sea lanes and are good at handling them, it is convenient on water and inconvenient on land, so seagoing ships can't enter the inland sea on the ocean. If the port is well defended and the subject and object are different, they must never play their tricks! " (Note: The Record of Emperor Gaozong of Qing Dynasty (volume 1436) was written by Xin Mao in September of the fifty-eighth year of Qianlong. ) In the face of British warships dominating the sea, Qianlong knew that China's sea power had fallen into British hands. How to deal with the aggressive "red-haired barbarians" knocking at the customs? The countermeasure taken by Qianlong was to completely and categorically reject all British demands. It is worth noting that, in view of the seemingly missionary intention of British envoys, Qianlong refused westerners to "preach rashly" on the grounds that the argument between China people and foreigners was very strict. )。 This may be the first time that the Qing emperor was called "China" in the national sense, and he was a potential enemy of all ethnic groups in China-foreigners. Ignorant of the general trend of the world, China people are willing to use the "debate between China and foreign countries" to counter the western countries, which is not commendable, but it implies that they are facing an imminent threat from the west, and the self-identity of the Chinese nation is ready to emerge. With the invasion of western powers coming, the cohesion of all ethnic groups in China will be enhanced, and the identity of all ethnic groups with their unified country will undoubtedly have great and far-reaching significance.
On the eve of the Sino-British Opium War, Huang Jue, secretary of Split Temple, said: "In recent years, the price of silver has been rising continuously, and it is remarkable to earn 1,620 yuan for every two pieces of silver. If you don't spend money in the mainland, you are actually throwing money abroad. Covered opium and opium fields flow into China and Guangdong provinces, where profiteers communicate with soldiers patrolling the sea, transport silver abroad and transport cigarettes to the entrance. " (Note: The Record of Xuanzong in Qing Dynasty (Volume 390) is a leap in April in the eighteenth year of Daoguang. ), Daoguang immediately sent an imperial envoy Lin Zexu to Guangdong to inspect and ordered Lin Zexu to send a message: "I think Qing and others will be able to show my heart and get rid of this big trouble for China." (Note: A Record of Xuanzong in Qing Dynasty, volume 3 16, was written in November of the 18th year of Daoguang. ) In the face of "foreign countries", Manchu, Han, Jun and Chen all stood on the position of "China" and shared weal and woe with * *. On the eve of unprecedented changes in China's thousands of years of history, the anti-smoking movement embodies the common interests and national spirit of the people of China and has important symbolic significance. "Brothers cling to the wall and control their affairs from outside" (Note: Notes on Thirteen Classics, Shi Mao Justice, Volume 9, Xiaoya Long Beach. ), this brand-new pattern of opposition between China and foreign countries has not only become a main line in the historical development of modern China, but also injected new impetus into the historical process of the formation and consolidation of a multi-ethnic country in China.