"Li"
"Rite" is an important category of Confucius' thought and theory. As a social behavior norm, "Li" has a long history. Confucius once said: "because of yin, gains and losses are also known;" Zhou's gains and losses are all known. Its successor or successor, though immortal, is also known. " ("Politics") also said: "Zhou Jian was in the second generation, and he was depressed! I am from Zhou. " ("Bashu") Confucius thought that in the Zhou Dynasty, "rites" developed most completely, so he admired Zhou Li most. Confucius believes that "courtesy" is a code of conduct that everyone from Tian Zi to Shu Ren must abide by. Confucius' so-called "ceremony" includes both internal spirit and external form. Its internal spirit is to maintain the patriarchal hierarchy and the corresponding ethical relationship at that time. In the Book of Rites, he clearly pointed out: "Don't be rude to the gods of heaven and earth if you are indecent." The position of monarch and minister, regardless of age, cannot be distinguished; There is no indecent assault, and there is no kinship between men and women. Therefore, he believes that what is more important is not the form, but the realization of its inner spirit. He once lamented: "Li Liyun, jade and silk clouds? Music rhyme, bell and drum cloud? " (Yang Huo) When Fang Lin asked about the origin of ceremony, he replied: "Ceremony is better than luxury; Sadness is greater than heart death. " (Bashu)
The external forms of "ceremony" include sacrificial rites, military service, crown, wedding and funeral, going to the DPRK for appointment, alliance and other ritual ceremonies. Confucius believes that it is very important to attach importance to the inner spirit of "ceremony", and the inner spirit ultimately depends on the external form. Therefore, Confucius not only studied these etiquette carefully, but also asked his disciples to strictly abide by it. He taught Yan Yuan "see no evil, don't listen if you are indecent, don't speak if you are indecent, and don't move if you are indecent" (Yan Yuan). He said: "Being respectful and rude is tiring, being sincere and unreasonable is embarrassing, being brave and rude is chaotic, and being straight and rude is twisted." (Taber) He always severely criticizes and resists acts that violate etiquette and legal principles. It is a breach of etiquette to dance eight Shu in court. He said: "You can bear it, but you can't bear it!" ("Eight Books") "The monarch tree blocks the door, and the family also blocks the door; The monarch is the goodness of the two monarchs, and there are objections, and so do the Guan family. " He criticized "Guan Zhong's instrument is small" and "Guan Zhong knows etiquette, but who doesn't?" (Bashu) Zi Gong wanted to tell the sheep of Crescent Moon, and he said sarcastically, "I love his sheep and his gifts." ("Bashu") killed me for three years, and he denounced it as "heartless" ("Yang Huo"). His basic principle of discipleship education is "erudite in literature, meet with courtesy" (Yan Yuan). Because the internal spirit of "ceremony" is to maintain the patriarchal hierarchy, it is also related to everyone's status and birthright. Abiding by birthright in behavior is to keep "courtesy", and surpassing birthright is to violate etiquette. Therefore, Confucius not only clearly put forward the idea of "correcting the name", but also mocked and denounced all kinds of behaviors that violated etiquette and crossed the border by editing Spring and Autumn Annals.
The code of conduct mentioned in "Li" also has the nature of education. Its essence is to ask people to strengthen their self-cultivation and consciously restrain themselves in order to achieve the coordination of interpersonal relationships, so it is permeated with "benevolence" and "virtue" in spirit. Therefore, Confucius clearly combined the two and thought that "self-denial is benevolence". A day of self-denial and self-denial, the world returns to benevolence "("Yan Yuan "). Politically, he opposed the use of compulsory criminal law and advocated that "morality is the highest and courtesy is the highest" (politics).
Confucius' admiration and admiration for Zhou rites is not archaic, but gains and losses based on the situation. For example, the top hat of the Zhou Dynasty was made of hemp, and later everyone made it of silk. For this change, Confucius said: "Ma is a gift; Today is also pure and frugal, and I follow the crowd. " (Zi Han) According to the regulations of Zhou Li, after the death of a boy, the funeral can only adopt a simple "mourning" ceremony. But what about the boy king of Lu? He died on the battlefield against the invasion of Qi. Because he has made great contributions to the country, people don't want to bury him with a "mourning" ceremony. When asked about Confucius, Confucius replied, "It's good to defend our country, even if you don't want to mourn." ("The Book of Rites under Tan Gong")
"benevolence"
"Benevolence" is the core of Confucius' thought and theory. Confucius had the concept of "benevolence" before, but Confucius enriched the connotation of "benevolence" and sublimated its meaning.
Confucius clearly pointed out that "benevolence" means "love" (Yan Yuan), and further clarified that "a benevolent person wants to stand and be a man, and he wants to succeed" (Yong Ye). "Benevolent", don't do to others what you don't want (Yan Yuan). This is a profound humanistic philosophy, which runs through all aspects of Confucius' thought and theory. He advocated "courtesy" and said: "It is benevolence to deny oneself and return the courtesy. A day of self-denial and self-denial, the world is benevolent. " (Yan Yuan) He advocated the ethical concept based on "filial piety" and pointed out that "filial piety is the foundation of benevolence" (Xue Ji). Even the spirit of "benevolence" penetrated into his educational thought. He put forward that "different people have different opinions" (Wei Linggong) and pointed out that "being knowledgeable and determined, asking questions and thinking, benevolence is among them" (Zhang Zi).
Confucius particularly emphasized the value and function of "benevolence". He believes that "benevolence" is not only a quality that everyone must have, but also a principle that must be followed in governing the country and leveling the world. For personal cultivation, he advocates that "a gentleman who has no food will violate benevolence, and he will do it when he has a period." ("Li Ren"). "People with lofty ideals are benevolent, and there is no harm to benevolence, but killing benevolence" (Wei Linggong). Teach students to work hard for "benevolence" with perseverance. For governing the country, he advocates that education should be the goal of governing the country and safeguarding the country, based on caring for the people. Put forward: "Governing the country by virtue, like Beichen living in his place, is shared by all the stars." Its so-called "virtue" is the spiritual embodiment of "benevolence". He also put forward the basic principle of "Tao (governance) takes a thousand times the country", that is, "respecting things and believing, saving money and loving others, so that the people can adapt to the times" ("Learning and Thinking"). He praised Guan Zhong's "benevolence and benevolence" because Guan Zhong assisted Qi Huangong's "Nine Princes" and "conquered the world" without using personnel carriers. He praised "Yin has three benevolence", which means "I am a slave, and I will die after remonstration", and they all strongly opposed the tyranny of Yin ("I"). When Zhang Zi asked about "benevolence", Confucius pointed out more specifically that "being able to do five things for the world is benevolence". These five are "courtesy, tolerance, faithfulness, sensitivity and benefit". Because "courtesy is not humiliating, forgiveness is popular, trust is considerate, sensitivity is active, and benefit is enough to make people" ("Yang Huo"). The starting point of five is based on respect, care and consideration for people.
On the basis of advocating "benevolence" and "virtue", he further put forward the social ideal of "great harmony", that is, "the trip to the avenue is also for the public, selecting talents and abilities, upholding faith and repairing relationships, so that the elderly are not only relatives, but also their only children, so that they can be provided with a sense of security, strong use, strong young, lonely and sick." (Li Ji Li Yun) This "Great Harmony" society is actually a society in which the spirit of "benevolence" is fully and comprehensively reflected. The ideal of "great harmony" is difficult to realize, so Confucius retreated to the ideal of "well-off society": "Guo Cheng gully pool is solid, courtesy and righteousness are the discipline, monarch and minister are sincere, father and son are loyal, brothers are harmonious, and husband and wife are harmonious." ..... The punishment of benevolence means that a well-off society should be shown to the people ... "(Li Yun, Book of Rites) This is a society that initially implements the spirit of" benevolence ".
"golden mean"
Confucius' thought of "golden mean" has both the significance of philosophical methodology and moral cultivation. As far as methodology is concerned, there are two main points: one is "neutralization" and the other is "harmony".
He appreciated Yao's proposal of "allowing in it" (Yao Yue) and opposed "going too far". Zi Gong asked Confucius, "Who is better, a teacher or a businessman?" Confucius said, "The teacher has passed, but the business is inferior." Ask again: "But there are more and more teachers?" Confucius said, "Too much is too late." (Advanced) Confucius' so-called "golden mean" does not mean compromise and reconciliation, but means "golden mean" and "appropriateness" in understanding and dealing with objective things, and the basis of "golden mean" and "appropriateness" is to proceed from reality. Therefore, Zi Han recorded: "Viscount: Unintentional, Inevitable, Solid and Ego." These four principles are to get rid of stubborn subjective prejudice and respect objective facts. Zi Han also included the words of Confucius: "I am wise, but I am ignorant. My husband asked me, and it was empty. I knocked at both ends and I was exhausted. " Meaning? Is it? Guide people to get rid of one-sidedness in understanding and gain a correct understanding of things.
Confucius advocated "gentlemen are harmonious but different" (Lutz). His so-called "harmony but difference" means that between different things, one party does not simply obey the other, but the two sides are different in status and ethical relations, responsibilities and obligations, and even in their views and methods of looking at things, but through mutual understanding and coordination, the harmonious unity of relations can be achieved.
Confucius also put forward the view that "harmony is precious". This view was put forward by his disciple Youzi. He said: "The use of ceremony, harmony is the most precious, Wang Zhidao, beauty comes first;" Small and big. If you can't do it, then knowing and combining is not feasible. Don't mention it. " "Li" was originally used to express the identity differences between people of different levels. Emphasizing "harmony is precious" means emphasizing the coordination and harmony between differences and different levels. This view, which emphasizes coordination and harmony, is divorced from its connotation of maintaining patriarchal hierarchy and is a principle with universal social significance in dealing with interpersonal relationships.
For this kind of "harmony" and "harmony" thought, Confucius advocated that it should not only be regarded as a way to understand and deal with things, but also be integrated into one's own sexual conduct and quality through cultivation and exercise, and become a human virtue. He once lamented: "The golden mean is also a virtue, even worse, and the people have been fresh for a long time." ("Eternal Night") So put forward: "Quality is better than literature, and literature is better than quality. Gentleness is a gentleman. " ("Ode to Leaves") In his personal style, he achieved "combining rigidity with softness, being strong but not fierce, being respectful without fear" ("Shu Er"), which was respected by his disciples.
"Teaching" and "Learning"
Confucius never tires of learning and never tires of teaching all his life, and has accumulated rich teaching experience. The thoughts of "teaching" and "learning" are important parts of his ideological theory.
Confucius learned nothing from his teacher, and he was open-minded and eager to learn all his life. He advocated that "knowing is knowing, not knowing is not knowing, and knowing is also" (for politics). Say, "A threesome requires a teacher." Choose good and follow it, but change it if it is not good "("Shu Er "). He also said to be "sensitive and eager to learn, and not ashamed to ask questions." Confucius also learned from his students and advocated that "different people have different opinions" (Wei Linggong). When Xia Zi asked Confucius, "Smart smiles, beautiful eyes look forward to it and always think it is gorgeous, what does it mean?"? Confucius replied, "Draw afterwards." . "Ask again:" After the ceremony? Confucius said, "The giver is also a businessman! I can only say "poetry". "When summing up his learning experience, he said," I often don't eat for a day and don't sleep for a night. It's no use thinking, it's better to learn. "(Wei Linggong)
Before Confucius, "learning is an official", educators and educatees were aristocrats. Confucius founded a private school and put forward that "there is no class in education", which changed the old situation of "learning to be excellent and being an official" and broke the monopoly of nobles on culture and education. Confucius claimed that "I have never been ignorant of self-discipline" (Book II), and his students came from eleven vassal states and people of various backgrounds.
For the purpose of learning, Confucius put forward the idea of "learning to be excellent is to be an official" through his disciples' remarks, and supported students from civilian backgrounds to display their talents in politics.
In teaching methods, Confucius is good at discovering students' characteristics in personality and learning, and advocates teaching students in accordance with their aptitude. He said: "Seek to retreat, so enter; Because he is also a person, he retired "("Advanced "). He is persuasive, pays attention to inspiring students to think independently, stimulates students' desire for knowledge, and advocates that "no anger means power, no anger means resentment." If you don't take a corner and use three corners instead, it will no longer be "("Shu Er ").
He advocates hard study and emphasizes learning methods. In the formation and accumulation of knowledge, I emphasize the importance of learning and seeking, and claim that "I was born without knowledge, I like the past, and I am keen on seeking" (Shuer). Disciples are required to "work hard and forget food", "keep pace with the times" and "review the past and learn new things". He praised the studious Yan Hui many times, saying that Yan Hui "retired and kept his privacy, enough to make a fortune, but not stupid" (politics). At the same time, he criticized Zaiyu, who slept during the day, saying that he was "a rotten wood can't be carved, and the wall of dung can't be carved" (Miyano Chang).
He emphasized the combination of learning and watching, learning and thinking. He said: "Listen more, choose good and follow; Read more and understand more; I know the second time. " "Learning without thinking is useless, thinking without learning is dangerous. "On the one hand, it is required to base thinking and analysis on learning and exploration, on the other hand, it is required to analyze and study what you have learned, heard and seen, turn it into your own knowledge and enrich yourself. He also emphasized the combination of learning and doing. He said, "A gentleman talks but doesn't do it. "It is shameful to think that words are not deeds, and it is shameful to think that' bowing'" (Li Ren). A gentleman is ashamed of his words, but he has done too much "(a wise man).
Confucius' educational practice and experience laid the foundation for the formation of China's traditional educational theory.