(about 427 BC-347 BC)

Not only ancient Greek philosophy, but also one of the greatest philosophers and thinkers in the whole western philosophy and even the whole western culture.

brief introduction

Plato was born in Athens and studied under Socrates when he was young. After Sue's death, she traveled around the world and engaged in political activities in Egypt, Asia Minor and southern Italy in an attempt to realize her noble political ideal. After the failure of his activities in 387 BC, he fled back to Athens, established a college near a gymnasium called Agal College, and taught there for 40 years until his death. He wrote a lot in his life, and his teaching thoughts were mainly concentrated in the Republic and the Law.

Plato is the founder of western objective idealism, and his philosophical system is extensive and profound, which has a great influence on his teaching thought. Plato believes that the world consists of "the world of ideas" and "the world of phenomena". The conceptual world is real and eternal, and the real world that human senses come into contact with is only a faint shadow of the conceptual world, which is composed of phenomena, and each phenomenon presents temporary changes due to factors such as time and space. Based on this, Plato put forward the epistemology of idealism and memory as the philosophical basis of his teaching theory.

Plato believes that all human knowledge comes from talent, and it exists in human soul in a potential way. Therefore, understanding is not the feeling of the world material, but the memory of the conceptual world. The purpose of teaching is to restore people's inherent knowledge. The teaching process is the process of "recalling" ideas. In teaching, Plato attached great importance to the understanding of universality and generality, especially to the cultivation of students' thinking ability, and believed that concepts and truth were the products of pure thinking. At the same time, he believes that students can recall the conceptual world through the shadow of the conceptual world in the phenomenal world, and acknowledge the stimulating effect of feeling in cognition. He particularly emphasized the role of early education and environment in children. It is believed that the things that children come into contact with in childhood have a permanent influence on him, and the teaching process should arouse students' memory through the perceptual inspiration of specific things and reproduce the inherent conceptual knowledge in the soul through reflection and thinking. In this respect, Plato's teaching knowledge is a kind of transcendentalism.

Plato's teaching system is pyramidal. In order to develop rationality, he set up a comprehensive and rich curriculum system. He divided students into several age stages according to their psychological characteristics and gave them different teaching subjects. Children aged 3-6 engage in stories, games, singing and other activities on the playground. After the age of 6, children enter primary schools to receive primary courses. In terms of teaching content, Plato accepted Athens' educational thought of exercising with gymnastics and cultivating harmonious development of mind with music, arranged simple reading, writing, calculation and singing for children, and also attached great importance to gymnastics and other sports training projects. 17 A 20-year-old young man went to China Everbright to receive military education, and studied cultural subjects in combination with military needs, mainly arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. 20-30 years old, after strict selection, 10 years of science education, focusing on developing young people's thinking ability, continuing to learn "four subjects" and understanding the relationship between natural sciences. After I was 30 years old, I studied philosophy for five years after further choice. At this point, Plato's relatively complete pyramid teaching system has been formed.

According to its teaching purpose, Bertrand absorbed and developed the "three arts" of the wise and the military physical education curriculum of Sparta, and also summarized the teaching practice experience of Athens. He first put forward "four subjects" (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music) in the history of education, and then it became the backbone and guiding source of the ancient Greek curriculum system, dominating European secondary and higher education 1500 years.

Plato believes that every subject has its unique function, and all learning will contribute to the development of character. /kloc-before the age of 0/7, the extensive and comprehensive subject content is to cultivate the general literacy of citizens, and for future philosophers, the above subjects are essential knowledge preparation for learning dialectics. Grammar and rhetoric are the basis of learning philosophy; Arithmetic is to train people's analytical ability and thinking ability: learning geometry and astronomy is very important for sailing, marching, observing the climate and exploring the universe; Learning music is to cultivate soldiers' courage and noble moral sentiments. At the same time, he also attaches great importance to the selection and purification of various teaching materials, such as language, stories, myths, epics and so on. So as to meet the moral requirements and promote children's mental development.

As far as teaching methods are concerned, Plato followed Socrates' question and answer method, and regarded the process of recalling existing knowledge as a process of teaching and inspiration. He opposed to instilling knowledge by force, and advocated asking questions in the form of questions and answers, exposing contradictions, then analyzing, summarizing, synthesizing and judging, and finally drawing a conclusion.

Rational training is the main feature of Plato's teaching thought. In the teaching process, Plato always takes the development of students' thinking ability as the ultimate goal. In the Republic, he used the words "reflection" and "meditation" many times, and thought that only through reflection and meditation can the knowledge about rationality be truly integrated, thus drawing inferences from one another. The function of feeling is limited to the understanding of phenomena and cannot be a tool to acquire ideas. Therefore, teachers must guide students to unify their thinking, combine learning with thinking, reach from one idea to another, and finally return to the idea. Teachers should be good at enlightening, inspiring and inducing students to enter this realm, so that they can "suddenly be enlightened" and enjoy "rational joy" after "thinking hard".

Plato's teaching thought involves almost all the important methods in the field of teaching. He was the first to define the basic division of psychology and make it closely related to teaching. He inherited and developed Sparta's teaching theory of dividing teaching stages according to age characteristics, summarized and adopted Athens' experience in the specific content, form, methods and means of teaching, and put forward a comprehensive and harmonious curriculum system. He attached great importance to the development of students' thinking ability in teaching and emphasized the discussion of the nature of things, which had great influence and enlightenment on later educators.

However, Plato exaggerated the significance of rational development in teaching. The teaching process that he advocates to know through recollection and meditation reflects his idealistic tendency in knowing knowledge. In particular, his thought of absolutizing and isolating reason and opposing feeling and reason became the theoretical basis of dogmatic teaching method of medieval scholasticism.

Plato's life

It is generally speculated that Plato was born in May or February in 427 BC or 428 BC (like other early western philosophers, his date of birth is still unknown). Plato was born into a wealthy aristocratic family. His father is Ali Si Tong and his mother is Periken. He is the fourth child in the family. His family claimed to be a descendant of the ancient king of Athens, and he was also the nephew of Chrittia, a famous politician in Athens at that time, but the relationship between them is still controversial. According to Diogenēs Laertius, Plato's original name was Stals, and later he was called Plato because of his strong body (in Greek, the word Platus means "flat and broad"). However, Diogenes also made other suggestions. Pratut's name may also come from his fluent eloquence or because he has a broad forehead. Because of Plato's excellent learning ability and other talents, the ancient Greeks also praised him as the son of Apollo, and said that when Plato was a baby, bees stayed on his lips, which made his eloquence so sweet and smooth.

In 399 BC, Socrates was tried and sentenced to death. Plato was completely disappointed with the existing regime, so he began to travel around Italy, Sicily, Egypt, Cyrene and other places for knowledge. At the age of 40 (about 387 BC), he returned to Athens after a trip and founded his own school, Academie, in the holy city of Akkadmi, a northwest suburb outside Athens. Academie became one of the earliest well-organized institutions of higher learning in western civilization, hence its name as the later academic institution, and it was also the predecessor of the developed universities in the Middle Ages. Akkadmi is named after its location, which used to be the residence of the legendary Greek hero demos. The college existed for more than 900 years until it was closed by Justinian the Great in 529 AD. The college is greatly influenced by Pythagoras, and its curriculum is similar to the traditional topics of Pythagoras school, including arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and acoustics. It is said that Plato erected a monument at the entrance of the academy: "Those who don't know geometry are not allowed to enter". The college has trained many intellectuals, the most outstanding of which is Aristotle.

In addition to Homer, Plato was also influenced by many writers and thinkers before this, including the concept of "harmony" put forward by Pythagoras, and Anaxagoras's teaching that Socrates should take mind or reason as the basis for judging anything; Parmenides's theory of connecting everything may also have influenced Plato's concept of soul.

Plato's major works

Plato was quick-thinking, widely read and wrote a lot. There are more than 40 works handed down in his name, 13. Plato's main philosophical thoughts are recorded in the form of dialogue. In Plato's dialogues, there are many dialogues in the name of Socrates, so it is difficult to distinguish Socrates' thoughts from Plato's. After painstaking and meticulous research by later scholars, 24 letters and 4 letters were identified as original works, mainly including:

I Epicurus, Socrates' complaint, Cleopatra and Phaedo.

II "Cage", "Taiyada", "Wise Man" and "Politician"

Three. Parmenides, Philippas, Feast and Fidel.

A chapter in archibald, the second part of the chapter in archibald and the chapter in gorgias.

Wise men, politicians, Fiji and Libya, law and Republic.

Apologies from Socrates, the Republic and parmenides.

Plato's forgeries are also of great academic significance. The following works are considered to be works of later generations:

Minos, erich Yas, Theages, Critto and Lover.

Plato's works are mostly written in dialogue genre, with vivid characters, vivid and interesting scenes, beautiful and gorgeous language, rigorous and meticulous argumentation and rich and profound content, which realizes the high unity of philosophy and literature, logic and rhetoric, and has extremely important significance and value in both philosophy and literature.

At present, the complete works of Plato (four volumes) are widely used, published by People's Publishing House and translated by Wang Xiaochao.

Plato's thoughts

Plato believes that any philosophy must include a theory about nature and the universe if it is universal. Plato tried to grasp the eternal truth about the individual and nature, so he developed a natural philosophy that was suitable for and subject to his political and theological views.

Plato believes that tangible things in nature are fluid, but the "form" or "idea" that constitutes these tangible things is eternal. Plato pointed out that when we say "horse", we don't mean any horse, but any kind of horse. The meaning of "horse" itself is independent of all kinds of horses ("tangible"). It does not exist in time and space, so it is eternal. But a concrete and tangible horse that exists in the sensory world is "moving", will die and rot. This can be used as a preliminary explanation of Plato's theory of ideas.

Plato believes that we can't really understand those changing and flowing things. We only have opinions or opinions about them. The only thing we can really understand is the "form" or "concept" that we can understand with reason. So Plato thinks that knowledge is fixed and certain, and there can be no wrong knowledge. But the view may be wrong.

In Plato's Republic, there is a famous cave metaphor to explain idealism: a group of prisoners are in a cave, their hands and feet tied, and their bodies can't turn, so they can only turn their backs to the hole. There is a white wall in front of them and a fire burning behind them. On that white wall, they saw their own shadow and something between them and the fire. Because they can't see anything else, prisoners will think that shadows are real things. Finally, a man broke free from the shackles and groped his way out of the hole. He saw the real thing for the first time. He went back to the cave, trying to explain to others that those shadows are just illusory things and show them the bright way. But for those prisoners, this man seems to be more stupid than before he escaped, declaring to him that there is nothing in this world except the shadow on the wall.

Plato used this story to tell us that "form" is actually something real in the sun, and all our sensory world can feel is the shadow on the white wall. Compared with the bright world of reason, our nature is dark and monotonous. People who don't understand philosophy can only see those shadows, and philosophers see external things in the sunshine of truth.

Plato's Republic also depicts an ideal utopia for us. Plato believed that countries should be ruled by philosophers. Citizens in Plato's Republic are divided into three categories: patriots, soldiers and ordinary people. The defenders of the country are a few elites who manage the country. It can be inherited, but outstanding children of other classes can also be cultivated into patriots, and the descendants of patriots may also be reduced to the ordinary class. The task of defending the country is to supervise the formulation and implementation of the code. Plato has a complete set of theories to achieve this goal. His utopia requires everyone to have his special function in society to meet the overall needs of society. But in this country, women and men have the same rights and are completely equal. When it is in the public interest, the government can lie. Everyone should do his own thing and should not disturb others. Today, Plato's utopia is a terrible totalitarian country. But "the ideal country is actually the view of scientists who manage the country in the right way", Plato himself did not try to realize the state machine in the ideal country.

Plato pointed out in the Law that a "constitutional state" is the best country after an ideal country. He also pointed out in the book that women and men should receive the same respect and training.

Plato tried to make astronomy a branch of mathematics. He believes: "Astronomy, like geometry, can be studied by asking questions and solving problems, regardless of celestial boundaries." Plato believed that the beginning of the universe was an indistinguishable chaos. This chaotic development is the result of the activities of supernatural gods. Plato believes that the most important feature of the universe from chaos to order is that the creator has made a rational plan for the world; The mechanical process of putting this scheme into practice is a natural event.

Plato's cosmology is basically a mathematical cosmology. He imagined that there were two kinds of right-angled triangles at the beginning of the universe, one was half of a square and the other was half of an equilateral triangle. From these triangles, four kinds of regular polyhedrons are reasonably produced, which constitute particles of four elements. Fire particles are regular tetrahedrons, gas particles are regular octahedrons, water particles are regular icosahedrons, and soil particles are cubes. The fifth regular polyhedron is a dodecahedron formed by a regular pentagon, and it is the fifth element that constitutes the matter in the sky, called ether. The whole universe is a sphere, because the sphere is symmetrical and perfect, and any point on the sphere is the same. The universe is also alive and moving, and a soul fills all the spaces. The motion of the universe is circular, because circular motion is the most perfect and does not need hands or feet to push it. The quantities of the four elements in the universe are as follows: the ratio of fire to gas is equal to the ratio of gas to water, and the ratio of water to soil. Everything can be named by a number, which is the proportion of the elements they contain.

Plato's view of education

Plato is also the first person in the history of western education to put forward a complete pre-school education thought and establish a complete education system. Starting from the philosophical thought that idea precedes matter, he emphasized rational exercise in the education system. He put children aged 3-6 under the care of nannies, and they would gather in the village temple to play games and listen to stories and fairy tales. Plato thinks these are very instructive. After the age of 7, children will begin to learn all kinds of knowledge and skills that soldiers need, including reading, writing, calculating, riding, throwing guns, archery and so on. From the age of 20 to 30, those students who show special interest in abstract thinking will continue their studies and learn arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and acoustics, so as to exercise their thinking ability and make them begin to explore the mysteries of the universe. Plato pointed out the significance of each subject to the development of abstract thinking. He advocates that future rulers should further study dialectics after the age of 30 to gain insight into the world of thought. In five years, he can be the king of philosophy that rules the country.

Plato's view of sports

Plato began to engage in educational research activities in middle age. In his slave owner pedagogy system, physical education occupies an important position. Plato also attached great importance to women's sports. He thinks: "Girls should practice all kinds of dancing and wrestling; After marriage, they will take part in battle drills, camp and use weapons ... because once all the troops come out to fight the enemy, they can defend their children and the city "(Plato's educational theory). In Plato's exposition, almost all aspects of sports at that time were involved. He believes that sports should include educational means and health skills. He made a fierce attack on the sportsmanship and professionalism of Athens at that time, and also criticized the citizens' thoughts and attitudes of despising sports. He advocates the harmonious development of body and mind, emphasizing "exercising with physical exercise and cultivating the mind with music". Plato's rich sports thoughts have a far-reaching influence on the development of sports in later generations.

Plato's Political Thought

In the Republic, Plato designed a picture of a just country: the country is moderate in scale, overlooking the whole country from the height of the city, and the people know each other. Plato believed that the country originated from the division of labor, so he divided the citizens of the ideal country into three levels: rulers, warriors and laborers, representing three qualities: wisdom, courage and desire. Rulers rely on their own philosophical wisdom and moral strength to govern the country; Samurai assisted in governing the country and defended the security of the country with loyalty and courage; Laborers provide material means of subsistence for the whole country. Each of the three levels has its own responsibilities and its own position. In such a country, politicians are highly respected philosophers. Only philosophers can understand thoughts, have perfect virtue and superb wisdom, understand where justice lies, and govern the country fairly under the guidance of reason. Rulers and warriors have no private property and family, because private property and family are the root of all selfish evil thoughts. Employees are never allowed to own luxury goods. The utopia also attaches great importance to education, because the quality and morality of the people determine the quality of the country. Plato even envisaged sending all people above 10 abroad at the beginning of the founding of the People's Republic of China, because they have been influenced by the old culture and it is difficult to change. All citizens should receive lifelong education from music, physical education, mathematics to philosophy. The content of education must be YEATION, and it is not allowed to introduce the epics and tragic poets of Homer and hesiod into China, because they will poison the minds of young people. Plato claimed that this is an ideal country of "first-class goodness", and other regimes are perverts of this ideal country. Because of the poor marriage, the ideal regime caused three levels of confusion, leading to the struggle and the rise of the military regime. In the military regime, a few powerful people gather wealth and form oligarchy. The sharp contradiction between the rich and the poor led to the revolution of the people and democracy. Democracy at its extreme will be replaced by authoritarian regimes.

The statesman was written between Plato's two visits to Syracuse (367 BC ~ 36 BC1year), which was a period when his political practice in Syracuse was frustrated and his thoughts changed. The main idea of The Politician is to discuss the definition of real politicians and politics. Plato put forward the concepts of political means and mixing in this dialogue; The role of law was clearly discussed for the first time, and the law was regarded as the standard for dividing political power. He believes that a real politician (the king of philosophy) does not need the rule of law, but in reality, real politicians are extremely rare. Even if there are real politicians, the law still has a certain role. Because politics is not only an art, but also a science. Law is like a training plan and prescription for politicians by coaches and doctors. Although it is absurd in theory, it is necessary in practice.

Plato further developed his thoughts on the role of law in his last work, Law. Ideally, he respected the rule of the king of philosophy, "no law or regulation is more powerful than knowledge"; Starting from reality, he emphasized that human beings must have laws and abide by them, otherwise their lives would be like the most savage beasts. Under the guidance of this thought, he designed his own "second-class city-state" in the legal chapter of 12, including geographical environment, territory size, population size and source, national economic life, class structure, political system, laws and other detailed rules. Due to the change of guiding ideology, the second-class city-state is quite different from the just country in the ideal country in concrete measures. Mainly: the political system has changed from a sage regime ruled by the king of philosophy to a mixed regime that prevents individual dictatorship. "Republic" advocates that the rulers implement the system of public property, public wife, public food and public religion, while "law" restores private property and family. In the Republic, citizens are classified according to their innate endowment, while in the legal chapter, they are classified according to their acquired property.

Plato's position in the west

In the west, Plato received more respect and attention than his student Aristotle. Because his works are the basic documents of western culture. Among the schools of western philosophy, it is difficult to find one that has not absorbed his works. In later philosophers and Christian theology, Plato's thought maintained great radiation. Some historians of philosophy believe that it was not until modern times that western philosophy gradually got rid of the control of Plato's thought.

Before the12nd century, Aristotle's theory had been rejected by the Holy See, and even Aristotle's works were no longer circulated in Europe. Plato's theory was dominant at that time, because St. Augustine borrowed and transformed Plato's thought and served theological doctrine. Until13rd century, Thomas Aquinas explained religious teachings with Aristotle's theory and established a complicated and huge scholasticism. Aristotle was re-valued.

Plato is in China.

Plato's theory was regarded as idealism by People's Republic of China (PRC) (PRC) officials after 1949. However, his enlightenment to western philosophy is generally recognized and respected because of his outstanding personality.

Platonic love

Plato and Aristotle were the most influential philosophers in ancient Greece, among which Plato had a great influence on later generations. Plato wrote a book in the mouth of his teacher Socrates, saying that when the mind abandons the body and yearns for truth, then thought is the best. When the soul is infected by the sins of the body, people's desire for truth will not be satisfied.

In Europe, there has long been Platonic love called "spiritual love" by China people. This kind of love thinks that the combination of flesh is impure and dirty, and that love and lust are two opposite States. Therefore, when a person is really in love, it is impossible to think of physical union with the object he loves.

In today's people's eyes, Plato's view of love is incredible. On the other hand, an American scholar put forward a new view on Plato's love as understood by modern people. Ella Rice, president of the American East-West Social Society and author of American Family System, believes that the spiritual love advocated by Plato actually refers to a kind of love between the same sex, that is, "homosexuality"! The ancient Greeks believed that the process of homosexuality was more of a spiritual communication, a spiritual communication than a physical communication. In the ancient Greek society where women received little education, it was difficult for men to find spiritual opponents from women. This is why Plato emphasized the love between people. Plato firmly believes that "true" love is a persistent emotion, only time is the touchstone of love, and only extraordinary love can stand the test of time.

American sociologists have different opinions about whether Platonic love is pure love with only spiritual intercourse or elegant love with physical intercourse but emphasizing spiritual intercourse. But one thing is certain, that is, Plato believed that love can sublimate people. He said that for a person who lives a noble life, it is not blood, honor and wealth that guide his behavior, but love. There is no emotion in the world so deeply rooted in people's hearts as love. A person in love will not be as pale as his lover if he acts disgracefully and is seen by his father, friends or anyone else.

Economics Chart: Plato

Plato arranged a rectangular chart from high to low in order to find the main problems affecting the quality of products, indicating the frequency of each cause.

Plato was created by Dr. Zhu Lan, an American quality control master, by expanding the statistical chart of Italian economist Plato, also known as pareto chart.