Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties: During the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, specialized educational institutions began to exist. According to ancient records, there were schools as early as the Xia Dynasty. In the Western Zhou Dynasty, schools were divided into Chinese studies (national official studies) and rural studies (local official studies). The university established by the Emperor of Heaven is called Biyong (both a central institution of higher learning and a place of worship in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties), and the university established by various vassal states is called Pangong (the first half of the school was named after the rain, and it was named after the water pool built in front of each school gate in the Western Zhou Dynasty). This situation was adopted by later generations, and the portrait of Confucius was also enshrined in Pangu in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Generally speaking, only the children of nobles can enter Chinese studies, and the children of civilians can only enter rural studies. Children of slaves are not qualified to go to school. At that time, the teaching contents were etiquette, music, shooting, imperial examination, calligraphy and six arts.
Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period: During the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, with the collapse of the aristocratic social system, the official school on which it relied once declined. The social demand for new culture education has created an opportunity for the emergence of private schools. At that time, a group of knowledgeable masters of private schools were produced. Such as Confucius, Mencius, Mozi and Xunzi. , not only in the Analects of Confucius, Mencius, Mozi, Xunzi recorded a large number of educational materials, but also appeared in the book of rites, the book of rites, the university, Xunzi and other educational monographs. At that time, Confucius put forward the idea of "teaching without class", accepting all disciples as long as they could pay "bundles" (jerky) to fulfill the entrance etiquette, regardless of the origin of the newcomers. So his private school is getting bigger and bigger. It has the reputation of "three thousand disciples, seventy have two wise men". The development of private schools in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period made school education begin to take the dual track of coexistence of official schools and private schools.
Han Dynasty: Management credits in Han Dynasty can be divided into two categories: central official schools and local official schools. The central official school is mainly imperial academy, the earliest official university, and imperial academy in Han Dynasty replaced Bi Yong like Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Biyong in the Western Han Dynasty only retained the function of offering sacrifices. Military Guoxue, a local official, was a large-scale and high-grade imperial academy in the Western Han Dynasty. Imperial academy, founded by Emperor Yuan Shuo of the Han Dynasty, is located in the northwest suburb of Chang 'an, the capital of Beijing. As the highest institution of higher learning in China at that time, Imperial College of Technology was the oldest institution of higher learning in the world, which was as famous as western universities such as Athens and Alexandria. Imperial academy's teacher is a doctor of Five Classics. The leaders of doctors are called servants, and the students are called "doctoral disciples". In the fourth year of Yuan Dynasty, Emperor Ping of the Western Han Dynasty expanded the school building for imperial academy, which could accommodate 10,000 people. The largest number of Imperial College students in the Eastern Han Dynasty reached more than 30,000. There is a Han imperial academy site in Luoyang. In addition, private schools in the Han Dynasty were also very developed, surpassing official schools, and the number of students far exceeded that of imperial academy. In the Han dynasty, all the masters of Confucian classics who had never been in politics or returned home or were deprived of doctoral opportunities were engaged in private schools to give lectures and apprentices, and the number reached hundreds or even thousands. For example, Ma Rong, a famous teacher in the Eastern Han Dynasty, raised many students, often thousands. Even Dong Zhongshu, a famous Confucian scholar in the Western Han Dynasty, devoted himself to reading and giving lectures at home after retiring from his post in his later years. In the Han dynasty, both official and private schools used Confucian classics as teaching materials. No matter whether they graduated from official or private schools, they could all seek official positions.
During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, wars continued, which made official studies in a fashionable and outdated state. But in general, the central official school and the local official school coexist. Generally speaking, the official schools in this period were in decline, and only local schools in individual dynasties or regions were relatively developed in a short time. The central education system in Jin Dynasty was divided into two categories: Guo Zi School and Imperial College School. The former is limited to the children of nobles above grade five, while the latter is the children of civilians. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, school education flourished in the Northern Dynasty, and doctors of the Five Classics were also set up in imperial academy in the Northern Wei Dynasty, and students were sent by counties. During the reign of Emperor Wen of the Southern Song Dynasty, four schools of Confucianism, history, metaphysics and literature were established in Beijing. History says that the "four-school system" has broken the situation of Confucian unified education, which is of pioneering significance to the establishment of later colleges and the development of subject teaching system.
The system of selecting scholars in the Han dynasty was an inspection system, that is, selection. From the beginning of Emperor Gaozu, there were measures to draft talents. In the second year of Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, the imperial edict was issued to select Jinshi, and the Jinshi selected from all over the country were appointed after passing the examination. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, there were other measures, such as testing filial piety and honesty. Filial piety is checked once a year. After the election, you can appoint an official without an exam. The so-called filial piety is originally the name of the two subjects of selecting officials. Filial piety refers to filial son; Cheap means honest people. At the beginning of Yuan Guangyuan, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, he ordered all counties and countries to honor loyalty, which was later collectively called filial piety. The results of the investigation in Han Dynasty are mainly filial piety, virtuous founder and Cai Mao. For example, Dong Zhongshu held an official position as a founder of noble character. At the end of the Han Dynasty, Cao Cao was promoted to filial piety at the age of 20, and later became a lieutenant in northern Luoyang. The procuratorial system is originally a system of selecting and recommending honest people to be dutiful sons. However, in the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, there were also some phenomena, such as fraud and back door. This system is similar to recommending workers, peasants and soldiers to go to college during the Cultural Revolution. In addition, filial piety is also false. For example, in order to win the reputation of "filial piety", some people even cut off the meat on their legs for their parents to eat; Some people climb the glacier, wait for the ice to melt and take it out from under the ice for their parents to eat. However, once promoted to filial piety, the prototype was quickly exposed. There is a folk saying that "filial piety, father separation". When you become a dutiful son, you will not live with your parents.
In the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the system of selecting scholars, in addition to keeping filial piety, virtuous alchemists and scholars, still followed the old system of Han Dynasty, adding the "nine-grade system". During the period of Cao Wei, Cao Cao once issued "seeking talents and employing people" and advocated "meritocracy is the promotion". His son, Cao Pi (Wei Wendi), began to practice the "Nine Grades of the Right Method". That is to say, the selection of scholars in each state is divided into nine categories according to their ability: upper school, upper school, upper school, middle school, lower school, upper school, lower school and lower school (that is, nine grades). The government chooses one person out of every100000 people and gives them an official position. After Wei Wendi, Chiang Kai-shek appointed aristocratic giants as officials, so it was open to the children of aristocratic giants, and ordinary civilians were not allowed to become literati. Since then, the gate valve system of "no poverty for the top grade, no home for the bottom grade" has been formed, which has been implemented for nearly 400 years. Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty abolished this system and used the imperial examination system instead. In a word, Jiupin Zheng Zhi system was an official selection system to ensure clan privilege in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. In fact, Jiupin Zhengzhong is a symbol of family status and has become a tool for clan landlords to manipulate political power.
During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, education was very prosperous, and school education reached a new peak. A complete academic system has been established from the central government to the local government. Imperial academy is located in the central government, and imperial academy has a dual nature, that is, it is both a university and an educational administrative institution (the Ministry of Education is also a university). There are Guo Zi School, imperial academy, No.4 School, Calligraphy, Arithmetic and Law, as well as Chongwen officials of Hong Wen Pavilion. Known as "six studies and two museums". Local government schools, government schools and specialized schools are also well developed. In the Tang Dynasty, specialized schools such as law, calligraphy, arithmetic, medicine, veterinary medicine, astronomy and musicology appeared. For example, medicine is divided into three majors: medicine, acupuncture and massage. Medical majors include physiotherapy (internal medicine), sores and swelling (surgery), juvenile (pediatrics), ear, eyes, mouth and teeth (five senses) and angular manipulation (cupping). Acupuncture majors study acupuncture, and tuina majors study tuina therapy and osteopathy. Due to the developed education in the Tang Dynasty, it attracted a large number of international students from neighboring countries. For example, 13 groups of Japanese students came to study China culture such as classics, law, etiquette, literature and medicine. At that time, Tang Chang 'an became the center of cultural and educational exchanges between the East and the West.
First, teach students in accordance with their aptitude and inspire them.
Teaching students in accordance with their aptitude is recognized as one of the excellent traditional teaching concepts. The so-called "teaching students in accordance with their aptitude" means to carry out education according to the teaching requirements, the different characteristics of the educational objects and the reality of students, so that students can give full play to their talents. Confucius was the first educator who noticed this method and put it into practice. Confucius noticed the different characteristics of students, and determined different teaching contents and progress according to their knowledge level, acceptance ability, morality and talent. Mencius also emphasized teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and noticed the changes in teaching methods. "The reason why gentlemen teach is five: those who are rainy, those who are successful, those who are talented, those who answer, and those who are private." Later educators Zhu, Zhu, Zhu and Zhu all inherited this excellent teaching method.
Inspiration and induction-this is an effective form to arouse students' enthusiasm. In teaching, Confucius greatly praised the students who can "know one but two", "know one and ten" and "teach by example", thinking that they have the spirit of independent research and enjoying themselves. Mencius also attached great importance to heuristic education, vividly describing it as "painting without firing, jumping like it", which means that the teacher is like a shooter, drawing a bow but not firing an arrow, eager to try. He particularly emphasized the cultivation of students' interest and "self-satisfaction" ability. "When a gentleman learns the Tao, if he wants to be comfortable, he will be safe; In times of peace, there is deep capital; If you are senior, take it around to meet its source. "
Second, review the past and learn new things, and pay equal attention to learning and thinking.
Learning and thinking are two decisive links in the learning process. Confucius put forward the idea of paying equal attention to learning and thinking, saying that "learning without thinking is useless, thinking without learning is lazy;" This has become a principle that educators of all ages agree and generally follow. Meng Si School put forward the thought of "erudition, interrogation, careful thinking, discerning and practical work" in the book The Doctrine of the Mean, fully affirmed the complementary relationship between learning, questioning, thinking, arguing and doing, and developed Confucius' thought of "paying equal attention to learning and thinking". Mencius particularly emphasized the importance of "thinking" and even said that "it is better to believe in books than to have no books". Wang Chong pays more attention to thinking. He said, "As long as you think carefully, it is not difficult.". Zhu attaches importance to the combination of reading and thinking. "Learning is reading, reading and thinking, thinking and reading, naturally intentional". Wang Fuzhi said more thoroughly, "learning is not an obstacle to thinking, but the more you learn, the farther you think;" Thinking is active in learning, thinking is difficult, and learning must be diligent. "These propositions are an incisive summary of the dialectical relationship between learning and thinking.
In the relationship between reviewing the past and learning the new, ancient educators paid attention to reviewing the past without forgetting to explore the new knowledge. The first sentence in The Analects of Confucius is what Confucius said: "Learning from time to time is fun." He also said that "reviewing the past and learning new things can be a teacher." In Song Dynasty, Zhu further developed Confucius' thought, and thought that "old" was the basis of "new" and "new" was the development of "old". "Learning from time to time" can enable them to master what they have learned, turn it into skills, and apply what they have learned endlessly. He said: "Review the past and learn the new. I don't know anything new, because I only look back, so I don't think I am a teacher. "
Third, step by step, from Bo to Yue.
Ancient educators in China generally attached importance to the teaching principle of step by step. Yan Yuan, a student of Confucius, praised Confucius as "good and charming", which shows that Confucius is good at guiding students to learn step by step. Mencius thinks that teaching is a natural development process, and compares the teaching process to running water, which advances day and night. But when you encounter bumps, you have to wait for the water to fill up one by one before moving on. "The source of hooligans is persistent and backward all over the world." Mencius also used the metaphor of the natural growth of seedlings to describe that when people are educated, on the one hand, they should work hard and never let themselves go with the flow, on the other hand, they should avoid pulling out the seedlings and be eager for success. Educators of later generations generally realize that the accumulation of knowledge and the growth of intelligence are a gradual process.
The return of blog emphasizes the correct handling of the relationship between leniency and specialization in teaching. Confucius attached great importance to erudition and emphasized the control of extensive knowledge in a consistent way. Mencius suggested that the way to study for further study should be not only knowledgeable, but also good at returning from Bo. Xunzi believes that without extensive knowledge, the foundation of specialization will be lost, and without specialization, kung fu will be chaotic and gain nothing. Wang Fuzhi believes that tolerance and specialization, erudition and agreement should not be neglected, and only by returning from erudition and restricting erudition by agreement can the teaching effect be improved.
Fourth, be good at saving losses and learn from each other's strengths.
Being good at recovering losses means being good at developing students' advantages and making up students' shortcomings. The Book of Rites puts forward the teaching idea of being good at saving the lost. "Xue Ji" said that in the process of learning, some people stand still and retreat in fear of difficulties. "Too much, too little, easy, stop" are students' different attitudes towards learning. Only by understanding these psychological states can teachers help students overcome these problems. In Qing Dynasty, Wang Fuzhi made a further dialectical study on "abundance, scarcity, change and restraint". He said that "more, less, easy and stop" have their own disadvantages, but more is easy to learn, less is easy to specialize, easy to be brave, stop is orderly, and each has its own strengths; It is a good thing to recover his loss. "Too much, too little, too easy to stop" has its own weaknesses, but there are also some positive factors. Teachers should grasp the specific situation, make the best use of the situation, carry forward their advantages and overcome their shortcomings.
Ancient educators in China also emphasized that teaching should learn from each other's strong points. The Book of Rites first put forward the idea of learning from each other's strong points, that is, teaching benefits from learning, and learning advances day by day because of teaching. Teaching can promote learning, and learning can also promote teaching. This is called "learning from each other's strengths". Han Yu inherited and developed Xue Ji's thought of "learning from each other's strengths", and then put forward the viewpoint of "learning from each other's strengths". On the one hand, he affirmed the leading role of teachers, on the other hand, he put forward the idea that "disciples need not be inferior to teachers, and teachers need not be superior to disciples". He taught people to learn from people with expertise and established the concept of "being a teacher".
Fifth, set an example, respect teachers and love students.
Most of the ancient educators in China were directly engaged in education and teaching, and they had a deep understanding of the hardships of teachers. I have a clear understanding of teachers' cultivation and a deep feeling about how to deal with the relationship between teachers and students. For the conditions and cultivation of teachers, ancient educators paid special attention to setting an example and setting an example. Confucius asked teachers to set an example in everything, teaching by example is more important than words, and taking their exemplary behavior as an example for students. He put it this way: "His body is upright, but he doesn't command;" His body is not right, although he is not obedient. " He believes that this "silent teaching" has a great influence on students and education. Xunzi believes that teachers must have four conditions: first, teachers must have dignity and respect; Second, teachers should have high prestige and rich teaching experience; Thirdly, teachers need to have the ability to impart knowledge in an orderly and systematic way without violating teachers' theory; The fourth is to understand the subtle theory and explain it clearly. It can be seen that the standards for teachers in ancient times were very strict.
With regard to the relationship between teachers and students, Chinese ancient educators advocated that students respect teachers, and teachers love students and establish good teacher-student relationships. Confucius loved his students and treated them well. He cared about students' wishes, let them express their feelings many times, guided them, cared about their way out, and recommended them to the upper rulers according to their expertise. Xunzi advocated respecting teachers and emphasizing morality, with special emphasis on the majesty of teachers and the obedience of students. Xunzi emphasized that teachers' strict requirements for students are the embodiment of their high sense of responsibility. If Confucius is an amiable teacher, then Xunzi is a dignified and respectable teacher. They respectively represent two styles of ancient teachers in China.