The centenary of World Columbia Exhibition in Chicago reviews the development of landscape specialty for a century. This exhibition sums up the optimistic belief of the country. We don't see any country in the world that is greater than the civilization we have achieved through revolutionary progress in industry, science and technology and art, but a nearly crazy reverence state that existed between the past western European civilization and the fundamental change in practice has been promoted and developed by domestic talents in the new era. They are responsible for discussing climate and environment, and making appropriate judgments and planning plans according to environmental conditions. To a considerable extent, this tension existed in architectural practice and landscape planning in the first few decades of this century. During this period, American designers tried to define a form according to their own wishes, which was suitable for their own times and people's understanding after their country and culture reached a certain mature stage.

As the main planning scheme of this exhibition is one of Frederic Law olmsted's last career, it is an inspiration to apply "White City" to subsequent cities. The beautification movement can be regarded as a projection of the urban planning value that olmsted fought for in the 20th century. On the other hand, the architect's decision to advocate the use of Beaux-Arts standard in site planning and architecture violates the principle of reflecting natural landscape in urban design in olmsted. In the difficult years of managing the lagoon forest, he suffered many difficulties and troubles, because he was afraid that transplanted shrubs and domestic aquatic plants could not flourish and could not balance the excessive buildings in the city. He tried his best to make Wooded Isle's 15 acre beautiful landscape the most important landscape feature in the whole system, which will be different from any other landscape.

It is obvious, however, that the invasion of the Japanese government pavilion, which is the reconstruction of the Ho-o-den Temple, did not seem to destroy the quiet refuge atmosphere in the jungle that olmsted hoped Wooded Isle would express. Compared with the buildings around the honest court, this wooden building can't be more shocking, although they have an impressive different architectural atmosphere. Frank Lloyd Wright, a young apprentice, learned about the Temple of Huo-Auden from Adler and Sullivan's office at lunch time. The mystery of this temple is that it is a source of dignity and has a beautiful shade environment. To some extent, these two days can only come together briefly, which will greatly promote the future of American architecture and landscape design.

Olmsted's life-long struggle made the landscape specialty gain the same status as other urban arts-architecture, urban planning and public sculpture-until the end of 19. Indeed, Charles Eliot Norton claimed that olmsted firmly believed that "the first thing all American artists should do in the great creative process is to meet the needs and endow life with various democratic ideas." On the same occasion, Daniel Burnham described olmsted as a person we should be grateful for, not only because of his contribution to the public cause, but also because his thoughts and his pen have taught us for more than half a century. Olmsted himself admitted that in a letter to a friend, he said that he had raised the status of landscape architecture "from an industry, even a handicraft, to a major one-art and art design." His work will influence future practice. Obviously, olmsted's wisdom and artistic leadership can generate design strength and lead the design direction. In the first few decades of the new century, he kept this major not only in urban design, but also in park planning.

Secondly, only from the perspective of the importance of Chicago exhibition site planning task, it is the latest important work. Olmsted was in charge of designing the Biltmore area owned by George Vanderbilt in the northwest of Carolina, and olmsted spent six years in practice after retirement. Judging from its scale and content-the conventional gardens, forest reserves and gardens around apartments designed by Richard Morris Hunt according to the model of bulova Royal Manor-this project has become a model and reference standard for rural land use and housing construction, which provided a lot of help for landscape design in the years when the economic crisis broke out at the beginning of the century.

Art eclecticism in this period is usually described as the revival of neoclassicism to oppose the poetic eclecticism that dominated Britain and the United States in the19th century. However, Vincent Scully believes that the revival of Baroque architecture should be regarded as a continuation of the long-term development of painting tradition. When the world expected that the historical tradition of privileged monk class control would collapse in the face of new political, social and scientific facts, Baroque style dominated European art and architecture from16th century to18th century, which hindered the western society from correctly understanding the world or human behavior:

Although space, sculpture and old form lack specific meaning, they can be changed at will by individuals. Although this eclectic method is completely a type of visual pleasure, it does not need to solve the structure of the building itself, but it has produced many different effects. It has the freedom to paint, so that the picturesque building will be more perfect. By the end of this century, a baroque design with no emotional input and significance except theory has become a bargaining chip for architecture schools to gain benefits.

From this point of view, the success of "Baicheng" imagination, the advantage of Beaux-Arts classicism, cannot change the historical model between architects and clients in any way in advance. However, replacing other buildings with the Colosseum and Renaissance palazzi does not mean that it can arouse people's memories, and European medieval architecture has not given up its attention to the natural perspective.

In the field of landscape knowledge, Reginald Blomfield defended formalism and attacked william robinson's endless basic analysis of the advantages of various forms different from the natural style in Britain. However, this style-based debate is mainly based on the geometric order of Italian villas, French castles and American colonial manors, as well as the rural landscape of landscape parks around British luxury houses. Of course, two different styles can be mixed together, just as olmsted did for George Vanderbilt in Biltmore, with plastic gardens and venues arranged in spectacular forest scenery; Or, in that way, a neoclassical building and a regular garden with irregularly arranged trees are usually set up in landscape planning, which can accommodate a large lawn and combine these styles with pastoral or very small suburban landscape.

Olmsted's professional genius, leadership and honor as a designer, as well as an advocate of specific urban and suburban planning, did not embody any special form, which became the characteristics of many of his achievements. This feature stems from the British gardening tradition. To some extent, this explains the design technology he used in Biltmore's conventional garden and makes him realize that this design direction will become an important part of his company's practice in the next few years. He often criticizes and opposes the introduction of formal architectural elements and architectural combinations into parks. His purpose is to protect the special value that he thinks is necessary for the physical and mental health of urban residents after urbanization and industrialization. Some of these values are based on visual experience-understanding stable and recyclable factors in a vast space-but the concept of dynamic experience with a purer natural environment is far-reaching and beneficial, and can heal people's hearts. This argument can give him an advantage in every heated debate and let us know his motives; It also promoted the progress of this bold theoretical concept. Olmsted aims to arouse people's memories of their ancestors who settled in the coastal areas of Massachusetts in the early days. They created a good living environment by restoring the growth of salt lake swamp plants near Fenway, Boston.

A superficial written description of olmsted's works is easily preserved by his many disciples and imitators after his death. However, the philosophical basis of his practice process has not been preserved: he believes that the task of landscape planning is to deal with the basic needs of human beings in the process of interaction between man and nature. Natural factors play a leading role, even in some cases, such as through art or other human factors. This belief is not the concern of olmsted's theory; When there is an opportunity to create or refuse contact with nature, people who are physically and mentally healthy have no emotional attachment to rural scenery.

Of course, this strong religious belief is related to his reading of Imeson, Ruskin, Lowell and other works. They made use of the romantic tradition, which Wordsworth called "wise passive acceptance" of the expectation of natural environment changes. Babara Novak described the development of American society's different understanding of this tradition in the19th century. It is a communication medium found in landscape, painting and reality, and it is integrated with the inner God.

The God of Nature talks to the God of Man ... People can also communicate through nature-an autonomous village requires its own characteristics, and its form is not single, but there are two forms in the same landscape. A classic example is Durand's description of Cole and Bryant in American landscape art, which is the spirit of the same clan.

Olmsted's knowledge and emotional investment in work may be subconscious; When describing his experience of nature in landscape practice, he seems to have obviously avoided the image of religion. But his understanding of all the key elements of large parks was written into his landscape works by Novak. Olmsted believes that too many human buildings will not give in to the vast natural landscape, they must be connected with nature, which can make the whole creation a pleasant experience; In a democratic society, experiencing nature is an effective means to cultivate brotherhood and civic responsibility.

Olmsted's viewpoint is also suitable for the application of suburban development, which can balance the relationship between urban work and rural fun, cultivate personal social relations, and promote interpersonal communication and family interdependence. The urban park movement represents the development at the beginning of the next century, and continues and redefines olmsted's theoretical thought. Walter Creese believes that ebenezer howard, the initiator of the British urban park concept, was inspired by olmsted's design scheme for the riverside during his work in Chicago. However, landscape architects are not pioneers of the national urban park movement.

Frank Lloyd Wright, like olmsted, is troubled by the conflict between modern people's desire for a happy, healthy and colorful life and nature. Nor does he think that cities, suburbs and houses need to be designed as American democracy hopes, so that everyone can show understandable beauty and truth in great art and architecture. The most important lesson Wright experienced was that Louis Sullivan taught and educated. He believes that because disharmony with nature is the root of many pains in the modern world, architects should solve the harmonious relationship between man and nature. Wright's challenge is to conceive an American architecture, which is a part of nature itself, rather than out of place-"the organic expression of magnificent nature". As such an architect, he must finally solve the central problems between colonial architecture and French castles, British buildings and art buildings. This must replace the content of style, a building that hopes to express the true experience of generations of Americans gradually understanding this land from the heart through form. We must better understand, Wright said, "the time and place we live must belong to its era and region." Posted in China Paper Download Center.

The prairie landscape in the midwest provided Wright with a place to apply his metaphor in concrete forms and materials for the first time. Externally, he combined the building with the site through the extension of the building and emphasizing the parallelism with the site, especially the house edge lines and windows, and the building became as natural as the grassland site. Wide windows and glass doors lead to the flat roof, stadium and garden of the house, bringing light and landscape into the house. This infiltration between architecture and landscape is the success of Japanese architecture advocated by Wright. Internally, a new open space is applied-in his words, "completely plastic, replacing the ceiling, floor and surrounding low walls, infiltrating and flowing with each other, becoming a big surrounding space." Similarly, we can infer the spatial expansion of grassland landscape on the horizontal plane. This kind of building expresses a kind of "scaffolding feeling" and strict simplicity, as if to show that it is a restored building of the original residents who settled in the grassland earlier. The popular mantelpiece with complex decoration and dysfunction was replaced by a "collective fireplace" with a big chimney rising from the house: "It made me see the burning flame under the tiles of the house again", and Wright put forward this new feature.

Wright's organic theory denies the possibility that the formal language and material details of architecture can be separated from the site and cohesive environment in the process of conception, thus isolating the building. Although the form of architecture must reflect the function, the performance characteristics of those forms are also functional to some extent, which stems from the architect's concept and intuitive response to the site and regional geology. "Oh, yes," he wrote in 193 1. In the process of criticizing some modern architects, "although architecture is a machine for people to live in, it has the same symbolic meaning. The heart is a suction pump. Sensitive people begin to practice from the place where the concept of heart ends. " Wright's understanding of the power of venue inspiration-usually described as the source of creation-has strengthened his long-term practical work, and his written works are less and less, but more complicated and vague.

In his early years, he hoped to discover the necessary characteristics of regional landscape to guide the appropriate architectural style. Grassland villa represents the efforts to reflect the natural and fictional regional characteristics in the objective architectural environment. Wright described similar efforts in his autobiography. After returning from Japan, when he was brewing Villa Millard, La micro matia, he thought of the natural landscape of California. He began to poetically evoke the real California landscape:

The dry, shiny seashore was not destroyed, and strange brown hills rose from the continuous sand, connecting the hillside covered with thorns like leopard skin.

This prospect has extended far away-the place where people live will disappear completely. When all the features gradually disappear, become barren, gradually disappear, become more barren, these barren mountains gather together, with snow-white edges and blue sky ... water will come, but it is an annual flood, from a sudden stream in the desert. It flooded houses and washed sand into pipes.

Then Wright described the Americanized houses and yards built by many Midwesterners who moved to California. They seek a mild climate, but are not prepared to give up their land and let them live in a real natural environment. They found it very difficult for them when their house imitated the style of their backyard. All the houses have the same appearance, and they are also designed with dense wood to resist the unnecessary bad weather. "The newcomers replace the local plants with exotic plants-all the beautiful plants are arranged on the big lawn of the town." On the other hand, Wright specifically mentioned that "architects who attach importance to decoration" introduced Spanish style into California architecture. Copying Spanish parish buildings, as well as their furniture patios and vivid courtyards, "Californians have no own style except to experience Spanish classical art".

Relatively speaking, la micro matia has become a building that began to copy the famous style in history, looking for everything that is being lost in barren land. "What have you lost?" Wright asked, "This is not just an obvious and frank expression of modern industry and life in California." La Miniatura will grow like a cactus-"a new building based on a new life-romantic life, beautiful California." Wright denied that "Mrs. Mi Leide spent a lot of manpower without trees". He supported the practice of planting mountain streams with eucalyptus, which cost only half of the former, and then arranged the house behind the mountain stream and pushed the mountain stream to the front, thus forming an "underwater courtyard" from which the balcony and flat roof of the house extended. In order to protect the needs of art, he fulfilled Alice Mi Leide's wish to set fire to the building. He "used concrete blocks, a material rejected by the construction industry" and then designed it. "make it beautiful-like a tree ... this building is made of concrete blocks, just like a tree standing among other trees around the local house."

Wright likes to use the metaphor of calling architecture a tree to explain his so-called organic architecture-the organic combination of architecture and site, indoor and outdoor. This idea, which is suitable for regional style, gradually absorbed a new idea, "paying more attention to the uniqueness of individual venues", such as the natural architecture mentioned later, which was first published in 1954, and the article mentioned:

We no longer regard the interior and exterior as two independent parts. Now the outside can enter the inside, and the inside can enter the outside. They are interpenetrating. ...

Any organic architecture grows up in nature, and it moves from the ground to the sun-the ground itself is the basic part of the building ... a building called a tree in nature ... but we can also call it a "natural" building, not an "organic" building. Or we can call it a merged building.

People may have misunderstood Wright's metaphor and described his "new building" as just an posturing gesture, which was endowed with quite gorgeous prose style, and many projects he completed in the office in recent years were also given such descriptions. In these projects, it seems that he did not pay special attention to the identification of specific site characteristics in site selection or architectural and landscape design. But this misunderstanding does not understand the long-term importance of the key work he has done. Just like a tree, the building is penetrated by changing light and shadow, the center of the building is covered, and then it spreads around-permeates down into the soil and throws it into the surrounding sky-literally described as the pulse of the active system connecting the ground and the sky.

Flowing water villa is designed for Kaufman family, which can only be explained by organic metaphor. In a sense, the form of a house is an abstract expression of the concept of "tree". In this way, regional metaphor can be understood as a form and structural language, which constitutes a regional style, but to some extent, the main body of the building has become an extension of the local geological subject-water, rock, soil, slope and slope. In the design of flowing water villa, Wright boldly expressed an organic metaphor, which kenneth frampton called "assimilation of architecture" ... a natural process, which went beyond the cyclical process of production and changed slightly-several years later, when water leaked and corroded, roots spread outward, pressure formed and materials were corroded-he would bravely face the pressure of natural collapse. Frampton thought that the flowing water villa took advantage of the darkness and used it as a hint of ancient caves:

Its integration with the landscape has been completed. Although horizontal glass windows are used to extend outward, they naturally penetrate into every corner of the building. Its interior creates an atmosphere of decorating caves, rather than the feeling given by traditional buildings. Rough stone walls and floors decorated with slate are designed in places that can arouse people's reverence for primitive people. On the steps of the bedroom, they go down to the floor of the lower floor of the flowing water villa, which has no other function except to make people communicate closely with the water surface of the stream.

Frampton's theory of "function" and "communication with nature" has much to do with a development trend, that is, he made us understand that Wright's view in the 20th century is closely related to olmsted's view in the19th century. They all want to meet the needs of Americans-they want to keep close contact with nature, although they still want to promote the development of urbanization. Olmsted kept people's hope. In urban planning, he set up parks in a certain range, which made it possible to maintain the close relationship between nature and people-and by developing suburban relations, the natural landscape in the suburbs was well preserved. Wright, on the other hand, hailed the birth of the automobile age. Americans can keep their anti-urbanization prejudice. At least they will look back at Jefferson's panic about big cities. He is worried that this panic will weaken people's morality, health and freedom. In his "Model of Medium and Big Cities" and his book "Lost Cities" published by 1932, he summarized the basic principles of big city planning. Wright developed his view that vehicles make decentralized cities feasible, which can eventually produce a new urban model, in which cities are only integrated into the vast rural landscape. At the same time, Wright advised his customers to leave the old model centered on population and service:

My suggestion is that you should go as far as possible, and the sooner you leave, the better. ...

We have the ability to live freely and independently, away from-when we choose-all the social relations and advantages we once had ... You can enjoy all the advantages you once enjoyed and imagine the great advantages for your children and yourself: the freedom to use the land and the close relationship with all living things.

Wright's view of free and independent life is based on his own field of knowledge and his close relationship with nature and places that have not been victims of modern industrial and technological interests every day. His views are different from those of American Utopia. As mentioned above, in the experience of dealing with the relationship between wild environment and tolerable romantic tradition, nature is established as the existence of self-consciousness and * * * consciousness, a tradition connecting Emerson, Thoreau and walt whitman, just like the tradition connecting olmsted and Wright.

Antonio Sant'Elia and Italian futurists put forward a new concept of urban future in the early 20th century, and there is not much difference. They accept the environment, and a large number of people live in a landscape rapidly changed by industrialization.

We must invent and rebuild our modern city from scratch. It is like a huge and noisy shipyard, active and free, and every place is full of vitality. This modern building is like a huge machine ... cement, steel and glass building, without carving or painting decoration, only beautiful lines and patterns are born. The simplicity of machinery is extremely dull. According to the requirements of the manual, it is not only allowed by regional codes. The road itself will no longer be like a poor ghost who can only serve as the entrance to buildings and cities, but will go deep into the earth and gather the traffic of the metropolis, transforming it into a necessary narrow metal passage and high-speed transmission ring road.