1, (a) the characteristics of the rise and development of capitalism in Europe

With the emergence and development of capitalism in western Europe in the14 ~16th century, profound changes have taken place in the ideological, social and political fields, and human society has begun to move towards modern times. Ideologically, the early bourgeoisie in Western Europe set off a new cultural movement against feudalism and theology, which originated in Italy, where capitalism sprouted the earliest, and quickly spread throughout Western Europe. The Renaissance demanded to break the theological world outlook of the church ideologically, take humanism as a theoretical weapon, and demand to liberate people and humanity from religious bondage, which dealt a heavy blow to the feudal religious forces, promoted people's ideological emancipation and the development of science and culture, made human's self-awareness awaken day by day, and played a role in ideological emancipation for the development of capitalism. In terms of social development, the opening of new air routes gradually formed an international market, the world began to break the closed state and move towards unity, and the decline of feudal system and the growth of capitalism began to form a trend. Politically, the bourgeoisie opposed feudalism by opposing religious theology, and the religious reform movement rose in Europe. Because the bourgeoisie is in its formative stage, its strength is still relatively weak and it has no advanced theoretical weapons. Therefore, the anti-feudal struggle in this period took the form of religious heresy. The religious reform destroyed the spiritual dictatorship of the Catholic church and further lifted the spiritual shackles of the development of capitalism in western Europe. On the political system, on the basis of relatively mature economic, class and ideological conditions, the Dutch bourgeois revolution was successful and the capitalist system was first established. The interaction of the above aspects further promoted the development of capitalism. The opening of new sea routes and colonial expansion provided a market for the development of capitalism. The Renaissance and the Religious Reform lifted the spiritual shackles for the development of capitalism, and the Dutch revolution set an example for the bourgeoisie to seize power. Under the synergy of all aspects, the feudal system in western Europe disintegrated and capitalism gradually developed.

(B) the decline of the East and the reasons for the formation of advantages in the Western world

From the beginning of16th century to the middle of18th century, once glorious ancient oriental countries such as China, India, Arabia, etc. In the end, it fell behind the west in the race of social progress, and gradually became a colony and semi-colony of the west, and the leading position of the west in the world was gradually established.

The main reasons why the west was ahead of the world in its March into modern times can be analyzed from the following aspects: ① Colonial plunder laid a material foundation for the formation of the superiority of the western world. After the opening of the new sea route, the west quickly went to the world, turning many regions and countries into their own colonies to plunder and slaughter at will, accelerating the primitive accumulation of western European capital and enriching their own capitalists, thus strengthening the strength of the bourgeoisie. (2) The Renaissance provided spiritual food for the formation of superiority in the western world. Under the influence of medieval theological thought, people were unable to do something freely because of various constraints, and the Renaissance made good ideological preparations for bourgeois economic activities and plunder, which made people have a outlook on life and spirit of pursuing secular happiness and optimism. (3) The Reformation is a scavenger of the advantages of the western world. In the Western Middle Ages, the church colluded with feudal rule, and the Catholic Church became an obstacle to the development of the emerging bourgeoisie. The religious reform released the shackles of the bourgeoisie, and many doctrines of Protestantism promoted and encouraged the bourgeoisie to expand abroad unscrupulously. (4) A good political environment escorts the formation of advantages in the western world. At the beginning of the transition to capitalist society, the kingship representing centralization needs the support of the new bourgeoisie to completely defeat the local aristocrats; The bourgeoisie needs kingship to protect its business, so the two sides can form an anti-feudal alliance, and the government implements a policy of fostering and protecting the capitalist economy, typically a mercantilist policy.

The reason why many great countries in the East are backward is that the mode of production is out of date. Specifically: ① Feudal autocratic rule was strengthened day by day, such as the strengthening of China monarchy in Ming and Qing Dynasties, the Japanese shogunate system, and the establishment of complete autocratic centralization in Akbar of Mughal Empire. This powerful ruling force helps to consolidate the traditional feudal social and economic system and political structure, and it is difficult for the feudal natural economy to disintegrate and capitalism to sprout. (2) Eastern countries implemented the policy of "emphasizing agriculture and restraining commerce", which led to the persistence of natural economy and the long-term continuation of feudal society. China is an obvious example. (3) The influence of the closed-door policy. China and Japan's long-term closed-door policy has seriously affected overseas trade and economic and cultural exchanges. Prosperous maritime trade is an important condition for the development of capitalism, and the eastern countries can only lag behind the historical process if they ignore and ignore this condition. (4) Lack of new ideas. Eastern countries strive to maintain traditional enlightenment and unorthodox ideas, such as stereotyped writing and Daxing literary inquisition in Ming and Qing Dynasties. Traditional ethics plays the role of spiritual weapon to maintain feudal rule, and the seeds of capitalism without public support are easy to die.

(C) the characteristics and laws of the early bourgeois revolution

The early bourgeois revolution refers to the 17 and 18 century bourgeois revolution in the workshop and handicraft stage of some advanced countries in western Europe. These revolutions are completely anti-feudal revolutions, and the most successful ones are to overthrow the feudal system and solve the problem of the bourgeoisie taking power. It can only establish some basic principles of capitalist society, but it is impossible to establish a complete and sound capitalist society. Therefore, Britain established a constitutional monarchy under the joint rule of the bourgeoisie and new noble, the United States established a separation of powers system in which the bourgeoisie and planters jointly took power, and the French established a fanatic representing the interests of the big bourgeoisie and Napoleon's rule. Even so, the feudal forces are still unwilling to fail and fight back. The failure of Napoleon's empire shows that even in Europe, where capitalism is the most powerful, the feudal forces are still stronger, and the establishment of capitalism needs further development and more struggles.

The characteristics of the early bourgeois revolution are as follows: ① The revolution only happened in a few countries with relatively developed capitalism, such as Britain, America and France. Because the power of capitalism is not strong enough to make the revolution happen overnight, and the revolutions of various countries are closely related to the international environment at that time, the revolution can only break out in a small scale. Under the influence of the revolution, other major monarchies made a transition to capitalism through reform, but this transition did not happen during this period. The leaders of the revolution are mostly bourgeois and bourgeois aristocrats, and the people are their allies. Because the bourgeoisie has the power of economic and political thought, it can formulate an anti-feudal program and put forward a clear slogan of struggle. Their anti-feudal struggle not only reflects their own interests, but also reflects the demands of the people to some extent. At this time, the people consciously or unconsciously obeyed the leadership of the bourgeoisie and did not have a clear consciousness of opposing the bourgeoisie. The theoretical weapon of revolution is enlightenment. The theories of natural human rights and separation of powers put forward by European enlightenment thinkers have established a set of ideas for capitalist society and provided a theoretical basis for the establishment of capitalist political systems in various countries in the future. (4) After the revolution was basically successful, the big bourgeoisie seized power. The big bourgeoisie, that is, the financial bourgeoisie, has relatively strong economic and political strength, has close ties with the government, and can win the support of the masses and become the representative of the whole bourgeoisie. ⑤ The revolutionary process is tortuous and changeable. For example, after half a century of restoration and repeated struggles, the British bourgeoisie finally established a constitutional monarchy, and so did the French Revolution. ⑥ Radical revolutionary measures were finally cancelled, and what remained was generally the achievements of the big bourgeoisie when it came to power, and finally stabilized on the basis of maturity, which was obviously reflected in the French Revolution.

The victory of the early bourgeois revolution was mainly because the revolution overthrew the old system and put the country on the road of capitalist development. At the same time, revolutions in various countries are inextricably linked. For example, the British revolution set an example for the American and French revolutions, and the American War of Independence directly promoted the outbreak of the French Revolution. The emergence of the early bourgeois revolution shows that the transition from feudal society to capitalist society is the trend of historical development and an irresistible trend of the times.