I once trained in an enterprise. Before the training, the customer's senior management specifically talked to me about the training needs, with special emphasis: his cadres at all levels must understand what "project" work is. Because in the senior manager's view, his managers simply can't set goals, can't set projects, and can't figure out what work can be counted as projects and what work is daily work. As a project management practitioner, the question of "what is a project" is like air and water, but the reality once again makes me understand that the foundation of enterprise project management is not as we imagined, and even some basic concepts and terms are confusing. Finally, I deeply understand that one of the purposes of PMBOK guide is to provide and popularize a set of common vocabulary for project management, which is very important to reality.

Starting with the definition of the project, this paper sorts out the basic concepts related to the project, such as organization, mission, vision and strategy, and clarifies the relationship between these concepts from the perspective of the project. This paper puts forward the method of judging what work can be done as a project. In view of how to reduce the project management process, the principle of "three benefits" is put forward. In addition, the source of organizational projects and the driving force of innovation are analyzed. By analyzing the types of projects, it provides guidance for the development of project management methodology.

1. What is a project?

PMI gives a concise but not simple definition of a project in PMBOK Guide: "A project is a temporary job to create unique products, services and achievements". PRINCE2 defines a project as: "A project is a temporary organization that delivers one or more commercial products according to an approved business argument." . IMPA defines a project as: "A project is a work carried out under certain time and cost constraints and according to certain quality standards to achieve the established deliverables". Zhu Lan, a quality expert, thinks that "a project is a problem to be solved".

Figure 1 Basic Features of the Project

From the authoritative point of view, we can sum up several basic features of the project:

(1) uniqueness. The uniqueness is reflected in the results of the project, that is, products, services or achievements, which are collectively referred to as deliverables, so the project is result-oriented.

(2) goal or purpose. Project is an organized system, and one of the characteristics of the system is purpose. The so-called "goal or purpose" is a qualitative or quantitative description of the deliverable.

(3) temporary. The project is temporary from the work point of view. If it is extrapolated to the project organization (team) to complete the temporary work, it will also have a temporary feature, that is, there is a clear start and end time.

(4) Progressive details. The goal of uniqueness is often associated with uncertainty and complexity, which needs to be recognized and solved step by step. The goal, achievement and scope of the project are characterized by gradual refinement.

(5) openness. To create results, the project needs to consume time, cost and resources, and needs to have various connections with the environment where the project is located; Openness also determines that the project is cross-functional, and all components in the organization are organically linked. Although technically a department can be mainly responsible, it is impossible not to contact other functional departments, so a single-function closed project does not exist.

(6) transformative. Project is a means of introducing change, trying to change the existing state of the organization by creating unique results, so as to make it reach a new state in the future. Project is the endogenous power to promote the evolution and optimization of affiliated organizations.

Among the above six features, the most fundamental feature is uniqueness and temporality, and other features are extensions of these two features.

2. What can be done as a project?

So what work can be done as a project in reality? If you follow the project-oriented thinking: any work is a "project" if you pay more attention to its temporality, uniqueness and gradual details. If you pay more attention to its persistence and repeatability and can explain all the details clearly from the beginning, it is "daily operation" But if you say so, the managers of the enterprise may ask with a puzzled look: "Can buying tickets at the station be considered as a project?" "Is it a project for a department to organize an activity?"

We seem to have made a mistake here, confusing project work and project thinking. It is true that we can regard any work that we think is unique, temporary and progressive as a project according to our own subjective wishes, but from the perspective of organizations (companies, enterprises and institutions), it is impossible to set up a so-called special project to do those trivial things. When managers of enterprises ask "what can be done as a project", what they really want to know is: from the perspective of an organization, what is worth starting a project?

Although according to PMBOK guidelines: "Projects can be carried out at any level of the organization. A project may only involve one person or a group of people; It may involve only one organizational unit, or it may involve multiple units of multiple organizations. " However, we must give a simpler and easier guidance and suggestion to practice. After all, the customer we serve is not to study what a project is in theory, but to implement it in practice. According to my own teaching consulting practice, the author summarizes the following guiding suggestions:

Figure 2 Three "Have a certain"

In an organization, whether a job deserves to be promoted to the organizational level for project establishment requires uniqueness and temporality first, and then the following three indicators are judged from the volume of this job:

(1) has a certain time span, such as more than 1 month;

(2) It has a certain organizational scale, such as more than 3 people;

(3) There is a certain overlap of functions, for example, at least two or more functions need to be coordinated to complete.

Note that the third article uses "function" instead of department, because the two are not in one-to-one correspondence. A department has at least one function and often has multiple functions.

The above three indicators, the so-called "three have a certain degree", need to be met at the same time, otherwise this kind of work is not worth rising to the organizational level, just follow up as "daily work" and assign responsible persons. Of course, whether to use the project-based thinking mode in handling is another matter.

Note: Both daily work and project work need management, and the five basic functions of management (planning, organization, command, control and coordination) are interlinked, but they need to be treated flexibly according to the characteristics of the work when applied.

3. What kind of project management process is effective?

As we all know, PMBOK guidelines belong to the knowledge system of project management, not methodology. Simply put, you can learn PMBOK guide to master the knowledge of project management, but you can't directly use the knowledge of PMBOK guide to manage the project. Although "PRINCE2" is a project management methodology, it cannot be copied regardless of the actual situation of the enterprise. Every enterprise has its own characteristics. Obviously, from the perspective of project management methodology, there is no one-size-fits-all method, and I need to "cut". Note that the word "cut" has rich meanings, including reduction, increase and adjustment, not just reduction.

Then the question is, with so many processes, tools and documents, how do I know how to cut them properly? The PMBOK guide gives some preventive measures:

(1) Cutting should deal with the competitive constraints in terms of scope, schedule, cost, resources, quality and risk.

(2) The project manager should customize the methods of managing these constraints according to the project environment, organizational culture, the needs of interested parties and other variables.

(3) For a specific project, the cutting method of methodology itself may also need cutting.

These precautions can be summarized as the general guiding principle, that is, "seeking truth from facts and being flexible". In addition, although it is diverse from the methodological level, it does not mean that there is no unified law behind it. Summing up these laws, the author puts forward that we can use the principle of "three benefits" to judge whether the management process of cut project is effective, namely:

(1) is conducive to improving work efficiency,

(2) Whether it is conducive to achieving the correct effect,

(3) Whether it is conducive to increasing the commercial value of the organization.

Figure 3 Three "advantages"

The so-called efficiency refers to the cost efficiency and schedule efficiency of project implementation; The so-called effect refers to the deliverables and quality of the project; The so-called commercial value is whether the tangible assets and intangible assets of the organization can be increased. These three principles can be used for pre-cutting analysis and post-cutting inspection, and the deviation can be continuously improved.

4. What is the vision, mission and strategy?

The purpose of an organization's existence is to create commercial value (tangible or intangible, profitable or non-profitable), so an organization has to answer basic questions such as vision, mission and strategy, because the definition of these basic questions determines what kind of organization it will become, how it will become such an organization and what kind of projects it will launch.

For example, one must first have some visions and wishes for the future (vision: to live a good life), and then make a life orientation (mission: to be a scientist, an actor, an entrepreneur, etc. ), and then formulate strategies and goals (strategy: three steps). Because the vision is long-term, it is impossible to achieve it in one step. We need to accomplish concrete work (project portfolio, program or project) in a down-to-earth manner to realize our vision. Of course, with the in-depth understanding of the actual situation (ideal fullness, realistic backbone), we will constantly adjust our vision (raise and lower our expectations), adjust or re-select our direction (adjust or change our mission).

In view of the great influence of vision, mission and strategy on the project, it is necessary to sort out these three concepts.

Figure 4 WWH model

Organizational vision, what will the future organization look like?

It is the organization's vision and vision for the future development, and it is also the vision and prospect for the future. Or the long-term aspirations and goals of an organization. What do we stand for? What kind of organization do we want to be? Persistent answers and promises.

For example, Microsoft's vision (mission): computers enter the home, put them on every desk and use Microsoft software. Disney's vision: to become a global super entertainment company.

Of course, we can also say "project vision", which is actually the overall goal of the project.

What is the mission of the organization, that is, the business of the enterprise? How to realize the vision?

It is the fundamental purpose and reason for the existence of enterprises. Enterprises should answer questions such as for whom and what to do. The mission of an enterprise determines its business nature, business philosophy and development direction. Elaborated: what is the task of the enterprise; The necessity of these tasks; What unique contribution enterprises can make to society; Explain the values, beliefs and principles of the enterprise.

For example, Microsoft is committed to providing personal computer software to make work, study and life more convenient and rich. Disney's mission: to make people happy.

Organizational strategy, how to accomplish the mission and realize the vision? What kind of goals are set?

Strategy is the long-term development direction and scope of an organization, which can gain competitive advantage by challenging resource allocation in a changing environment, thus realizing the expectations of relevant parties.

Strategic objectives are the expectation of the main results of strategic business activities of enterprises. The setting of strategic objectives is also the development and concretization of the organizational mission, the further clarification and definition of the organizational operation purpose and social mission confirmed in the enterprise mission, and the specific provisions on the level that the organization should achieve in carrying out strategic business activities in the established strategic business field.

Enterprise strategy has hierarchical characteristics, which can be generally divided into: company strategy, business unit strategy and organizational operation strategy.

(1) corporate strategy is also called overall strategy and group strategy, including three types of strategies, namely, growth strategy, stability strategy and contraction strategy. The overall goal of the company defined by the strategic goal of the company.

(2) Business unit strategy, also known as competitive strategy, includes three types of strategies, namely, cost leadership strategy, differentiation strategy and centralization (business focus) strategy. The strategic goal of the Division is to decompose the overall goal of the Company from the business perspective.

(3) Functional strategy, also known as operational strategy, refers to how each component of an organization can effectively use its resources, processes and personnel to realize the company-level strategy and business unit strategy. Functional strategy is the decomposition of company goals from the perspective of management.

Figure 5 Relationship between strategy and project

Strategic decisions are made in a complex and uncertain environment, which often directly leads to organizational changes. No matter what level of strategic objectives, it may lead to the emergence of project portfolio, project set or project.

Strategies are sometimes used in other aspects, such as negotiation strategy, project strategy and technical strategy. The "strategy" of these occasions can be understood as the overall (high-level) plan if the action steps are described, and the overall goal, high-level goal and main goal if the goals are described.

5. Source and driving force of the project

Project is a means for an organization to introduce change, and change means innovation. There may be thousands of definitions about innovation. If the context is not restricted, the characteristic of * * * is to "do something different from before".

From the perspective of enterprise competitive strategy, it is mainly reflected in product differentiation. Michael. Professor Porter pointed out in his masterpiece "Competitive Strategy" that enterprise competition is mainly reflected in two aspects: differentiation and cost reduction. Differentiation plays a decisive role in the final survival of an enterprise. Innovation is the only solution to competitive differentiation. The project comes from the demand of the organization to participate in the competition. The more intense and extensive the competition, the more projects will be born.

Figure 6 innovation chain

It is generally believed that differentiation is mainly reflected in products, but it is not comprehensive. The differentiation of enterprise competition is reflected in all aspects of delivery value, at least as shown in Figure 6, which I call "innovation chain". The differentiation of products in this chain is only the intermediate link of the whole value chain and the intermediate carrier of differentiation. Business strategy and service are also carriers of differentiation. The driving force of innovation is not these carriers, but the team. Without an innovation team, product differentiation can only stay in the dream stage, and even the seeds are not called. The difference of management lies in improving organizational division of labor, improving organizational efficiency and stimulating effective innovation of the team.

In many years of product research and development, the author often thinks about this kind of problem and finds that all questions will eventually point to the person who created the product. In enterprise projects, we often pay special attention to product differentiation, while ignoring human differentiation. It's like we all expect to get golden eggs, but we often ignore the chickens that lay them. We often focus on how this golden egg can differentiate better, but ignore whether we have a chicken that can only lay golden eggs. In the Internet age, it is not difficult to obtain information and stimulate creativity. Anyone with normal IQ can give dozens of ideas in a short time. What is really lacking in this era is not "creativity", but people who can turn creativity into reality and innovative teams composed of such people.

6. The four types of projects should be separated.

In real projects, there are only a few projects that can really define the time limit, cost and quality objectives before the start of construction, and can start construction in full accordance with commercial contracts. Some scholars have named "projects that can't clearly define the project objectives and scope in advance, but only roughly define the purpose" as "pan-projects", such as "Learning from Tang Priest" and "Letter to Garcia". "Pan-project" is also a project, which exists in reality. Different types of projects have different internal development laws, so should the project implementation strategies at the organizational level and the expectations of project stakeholders. As far as the project method is concerned, the same method cannot be used across the board.

The author classifies projects from two key angles: technical uncertainty and demand uncertainty, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Item Classification

The first category: technology determination and demand determination belong to predictive development projects, that is, predictive life cycle model (waterfall) can be generally used for implementation, such as general engineering construction projects.

The second category: technical uncertainty and demand certainty, which belong to technical research projects, can generally be implemented by iterative or incremental life cycle, such as innovative product research and development projects.

The third category: the technology is determined and the demand is uncertain, which belongs to adaptive development projects, and generally adopts adaptive (agile) life cycle, that is, rapid iteration, such as Internet product projects.

The fourth category: the technology is uncertain and the demand is uncertain, which belongs to scientific research projects and is generally implemented by strict and standardized methods. In the form of life cycle: short-term (more than one year) strictly implemented step by step, similar to predicting life cycle, we can call it linear life cycle; In the long run, it is an iterative or incremental model with a long iterative period (more than several years). For example, aerospace engineering and lunar exploration engineering.

Therefore, from the perspective of technical uncertainty, projects can be divided into research projects and development projects. For research projects, the main purpose is to verify whether the scope (technology) of the project is feasible. When scope, schedule and cost conflict, schedule and cost are usually sacrificed. For development projects, scope, cost and schedule goals need to be promised at the same time. When there are contradictions between them, scope is usually sacrificed. From the perspective of organizational strategy, organizations should solve the technical uncertainty before developing applications, otherwise the cost and progress of product development projects will be out of control. The relationship between these two types of projects is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Relationship between research projects and development projects

Projects whose principles or theories have not been broken through belong to the fifth category and can be called theoretical research projects. Generally, it will not be carried out at the enterprise level (except those with strength and feelings), and projects done by doctoral scholars often fall into this category.

According to the classification of projects, we can put forward the guiding methods of enterprise product innovation, as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Product innovation method

Low-end product innovation generally stays in the stage of product imitation and improvement, while high-end product innovation should return to the principle direction. The highest-end innovation is a breakthrough in the principle stage, but the result of the principle breakthrough is generally a dead letter and cannot be directly turned into a product that consumers can use. Enterprises can organize technical teams to screen industry-related papers, invest resources to technicalize the papers, further modularize the technology and make it fruitful, and then complete the arrangement and combination of technical achievements according to the specific needs of the market to deliver commercial products.

refer to

[1]. Strategic Management (6th Edition), Gerry Johnson (English), People's Posts and Telecommunications Publishing House.

[2]. Organization Theory and Design (12 Edition), Richard L. Daft (America), Tsinghua University Publishing House.

[3]. Introduction to System Science (4th Edition), Miao Dongsheng, Renmin University of China Press.

[4]. Project Planning, Progress and Control (5th Edition), James Lewis, Machinery Industry Press.

[5]. Organization-level project management maturity model -OPM3 (3rd edition), PMI

[6]. Portfolio Management Standard (Third Edition), PMI

[7]. Practical Guide to Business Analysis

[8]. Guide to Project Management Knowledge System -PMBOK (6th Edition), PMI

[9]. Methodology of Project Management (2nd Edition), Wang Xiaojin, China Electric Power Press.

[10]. successful project management methodology of prince 2 (version 20 17), AXELOS.

[1 1]. Journey to the West-Pan-Project Management, Ding, 2004.5, Project Management Technology (Journal)

[12]. This is what you have to do for the project. Kakutisei Guo, People's Posts and Telecommunications Publishing House.

Postscript:

The reason for listing references is that I only wanted to write an ordinary online article, but I found that these basic questions were not so easy to answer, so I consulted the materials and papers, carefully distinguished and thought, and finally the ordinary article became a "paper".